Linguistic Competence: Unity and Coherence

• Linguistic competence refers to the ability to successfully or efficiently use a target language, such as English.
• It includes the ability to use the language competently in both spoken and written form by applying structural rules.

Principles of Unity and Coherence

• Paragraph unity involves developing a single idea thoroughly and linking it to the rest of the paper.
• Paragraph coherence is achieved when sentences are ordered logically, with clear transitions linking them.
• Paragraph unity involves developing a paragraph around a major idea.
• Unity aids the reader in following the writer's ideas, and requires the writer to use the same organization pattern for sentences in paragraphs.

Sentence Unity

• Sentence unity is achieved when the subject and predicate of a sentence join logically.
• Parts of a sentence should come together grammatically and make sense; without it, a sentence is incoherent.
• Paragraphs must have unity, with a single topic found in the topic sentence.
• Sentences should provide more detail than the topic sentence while maintaining focus on the presented idea.
• Coherence refers to the smooth and logical flow of ideas from one sentence to the next.
• Without cohesion, the reader will not understand the main points being made, and ideas are connected through clarity of expression, and correct vocabulary and grammar.

Establishing Coherence

• Sentences can be written to flow by varying lengths and structures, using correct punctuation, and broadening word choices.
• Simple transitions can be used, such as ‘in addition,’ ‘furthermore,’ ‘therefore,’ etc.
• Keywords can be repeated, but excessive repetition should be avoided.
• Sentence structures can be repeated as a rhetorical technique to highlight parallelism between sentences.
• Thematic consistency (sticking to the topic) should be ensured, and each sentence or paragraph should start with information hinting at the next sentence's content.

Ways for Creating Coherence

• Lexis creates cohesion using synonyms, hyponyms, and super-ordinates, with lexical chains creating variety and avoiding monotony.
• Repetition uses the same word, synonyms, or antonyms.
• Collocation uses related words that typically go together.
• Reference creates cohesion by using possessive and personal pronouns, and determiners.
• Substitution uses a different word in place of a previously mentioned word.
• Ellipsis is the removal of words because their meaning is implied through context.
• Cohesive nouns are also called umbrella nouns and summarize many words in one.
• Conjunctions include words that list ideas (e.g., first, next, then, lastly, etc.).
• Academic writing should be concise, coherent, and cohesive.

Cohesion

• Cohesion means sentences are connected at the sentence level, focusing on grammar and style.
• Cohesion smoothens the flow of writing and should establish a logical organization of phrases, sentences, and clauses to make them easier to read and comprehend

Cohesive Devices

• Linking words/connectors join ideas and make sentences/paragraphs more logical.

Types of Cohesive Devices

• Pronouns refer back to a person or object without repeating its name.
• Prepositions show relationships between a noun and the rest of the sentence.
• Conjunctions like ‘or,’ ‘and,’ ‘but,’ ‘so’ join sentences and phrases.
• Cohesive transitional devices add information (and, also), sequence events (firstly, next), emphasize (above all, indeed), contrast ideas (however, whereas).
• Illustrating devices (such as, for instance) introduce examples, and conclusion devices (to summarize, in conclusion) provide closure.
• Cause and effect devices (because, therefore) link reasons and results, and qualifying devices (but, although) introduce conditions or exceptions.

Methods of Paragraph Development

• Facts and statistics in expository writing offer evidence/statistics and focus on facts without expressing opinions.
• Examples are types of support/evidence for the idea and explanation that came before it.

Illustration

• Illustration is a rhetorical style that uses examples to support the thesis or main idea of a paragraph or essay.
• The steps to writing an illustration essay include choosing a topic, conducting research, writing an outline, working on content, proofreading, and doing a final check.

Analogy

• Analogy compares two usually very different things or ideas and defines the relationship between them.
• Narration tells a story or recounts a series of events, based on personal experience or observation.
• Chronology governs narration with concrete detail and a point of view.
• Exposition expands ideas through explanation and elaboration, using topic sentences, examples, and concluding sentences with facts and statistics.
• Persuasion consists of a topic sentence with the writer’s opinion, supporting body sentences, and a closing sentence restating the conclusion
• Description provides specific details about what something looks, smells, tastes, sounds, or feels like, organized spatially or by topic.

Idiom

• Idiom is a phrase or expression with a figurative, non-literal meaning.
• It may differ from the literal meaning of the phrase.

Colloquialism

• Colloquial language, or everyday language, is the most common functional style of speech used in informal contexts.
• Colloquialisms may include slang, regional phrases, or shortened words, and don't follow formal grammar rules.

Denotative

• Denotative refers to the main meaning of a word, without emotional connections and involves clarity and directness.
• Connotative meanings include additional meanings or feelings associated with a word, shaped by personal experiences and cultural contexts.

Orthography

• Orthography is the system of writing, including rules for spelling, punctuation, capitalization, and word formation.
• Key elements include spelling, punctuation, capitalization, and word formation.

Context Clues

• Context clues are hints within a text that help readers understand the meaning of unfamiliar words, including the setting of a word or event.

Types of Context Clues

• Definition/explanation clues directly define the unfamiliar word within the sentence
• Synonym Clues include a word of similar meaning.
• Antonym Clues includes a word with the opposite meaning.
• Example clues provide specific examples.
• Inference Clues are suggested through the overall context.
• Synonyms or restatement clues restate the meaning using similar words.
• Antonym or contrast clues use words/phrases with opposite meanings.
• Definition or explanation clues give the actual meaning in the sentence.
• General or inference clues are implied; the reader must look for clues, before, within, and after the sentence in which the word occurs.

Punctuation or Font Clues

• Commas, dashes, or parentheses may be included.
• Clues may be in capitalization, italicization, quotation marks, and parentheses.

Cause and Effect

• Uses words like “because,” “since,” “therefore,” etc. making something else happen

Conversation

• Conversation involves an exchange of turns, granting the right to hold the floor until one has finished speaking.

Turn-Taking

• Turn-taking occurs when one person listens while the other person speaks, exchanging roles back and forth.

Asking for Clarification

• Strategies include asking "What do you mean by ...?", stating "I don't understand," admitting confusion, asking "You mean...?", and requesting elaboration or a breakdown of complex statements.

Communication Gap

• Communication gap occurs when the intended meaning is not understood by the recipient, resulting from misperceptions or incorrect assumptions.

Steps to Strengthen Information Transfer and Prevent Communication Gaps

• Be focused by considering the audience.
• Frame the message by stating the topic and purpose upfront.
• Use appropriate volume of words.
• Avoid assumptions by establishing the recipient's knowledge.
• Check for comprehension by asking if recipient understand.
• Use the right medium.
• Wrap it up with a summary.