Ling/Psyc 370B, Issues, theories, and methods Lecture #3 & #4
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Questions and Answers

Which technique involves the processing of information in a non-sequential manner, allowing for faster cognitive output?

  • Serial processing
  • Controlled processing
  • Implicit processing
  • Parallel processing (correct)

    • What processing strategy relies heavily on previous knowledge or experiences to interpret new information?

  • Top-down processing (correct)
  • Randomized processing
  • Habitual processing
  • Bottom-up processing

    • Which of the following best describes automatic processing?

  • Is reliant on external cues for task execution
  • Requires conscious effort and attention
  • Occurs without intentional direction of thought (correct)
  • Involves the use of metalinguistic knowledge

    • In the context of information processing modes, what is a key characteristic of offline competence techniques?

    <p>Evaluation after stimuli presentation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which component of working memory is primarily responsible for holding and manipulating auditory information?

    <p>The phonological loop</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What best describes the difference between serial and parallel processing?

    <p>Serial processing takes place one step at a time, whereas parallel processing executes multiple processes at once.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which processing type involves a higher level of cognition influencing the interpretation of lower level inputs?

    <p>Top-down processing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which component of the Baddeley-Hitch model is responsible for processing and manipulating visuospatial information?

    <p>Visuospatial sketchpad</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is primarily responsible for temporarily holding phonological representations in working memory?

    <p>Phonological store</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of parallel processing, what does Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) imply about the mind?

    <p>The mind operates through massive parallel mechanisms.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes top-down processing from bottom-up processing?

    <p>Top-down processing is driven by previously acquired knowledge, while bottom-up processing is driven by sensory inputs.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of the working memory model, which process is associated with the covert or overt rehearsal of materials?

    <p>Phonological loop</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is primarily processed in bottom-up processing?

    <p>Raw sensory data</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes the primary and recency effects in memory recall?

    <p>Higher recall for the first and last few list items</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements is true regarding automatic versus controlled processes?

    <p>Automatic processes are often influenced by previous experiences.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement about automatic and controlled processes is accurate?

    <p>Reading is more likely to engage automatic processes compared to color naming.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of the information processing model, which statement best describes memory components?

    <p>Working memory allows for temporary storage and manipulation of information based on current goals.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which component of the Baddeley-Hitch model is tasked with executive control of information processing?

    <p>Central executive</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does top-down processing utilize to assist in the understanding of language?

    <p>Contextual and situational cues</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How would one characterize the output of language acquisition according to the 'black box' model?

    <p>It produces articulate thoughts and sentences.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a function of the visuospatial sketchpad?

    <p>Covertly rehearse auditory material</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does phoneme restoration play in speech perception?

    <p>It illustrates how listeners use context to fill in missing phonemes even when they are obscured.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When distractions affect memory recall, what aspect of working memory is being compromised?

    <p>Fragility of storage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best illustrates an example of parallel processing?

    <p>Reading a book while taking notes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of these best describes the difference between serial and parallel processing?

    <p>Serial processing typically requires more cognitive resources than parallel processing.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the working memory model, what is the role of maintenance rehearsal?

    <p>To keep information in working memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following strategies is indicative of controlled processing?

    <p>Deliberately focusing on a math problem.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does the phonological loop play in information processing?

    <p>It manipulates verbal and auditory information.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key difference between top-down processing and bottom-up processing?

    <p>Top-down processing starts with existing knowledge to interpret information, unlike bottom-up processing.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens during top-down processing in speech perception?

    <p>Listeners involve background knowledge and context to interpret incomplete auditory signals.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of memory allows for the reliable recall of items in the correct order?

    <p>Working memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement accurately reflects the characteristics of the phonological loop?

    <p>It plays a key role in articulating and rehearsing verbal information.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of memory is specifically involved in recalling events experienced personally?

    <p>Episodic memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term describes the ability to recognize patterns in auditory signals based on stored knowledge?

    <p>Top-down processing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of memory relates to the knowledge of facts and concepts, such as definitions and general knowledge?

    <p>Semantic memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which process typically involves less mental effort and is often automatic in nature?

    <p>Automatic processing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In working memory, which component is primarily responsible for the manipulation and rehearsal of verbal information?

    <p>Phonological loop</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which approach to processing information organizes data based on incoming sensory input rather than pre-existing knowledge?

    <p>Bottom-up processing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the function of the Language Acquisition Device (LAD)?

    <p>An innate structure promoting language understanding</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does chunking in memory processing help with information retention?

    <p>It organizes information into manageable units.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which process is characterized by breaking down information into individual elements before synthesizing it into a whole?

    <p>Serial processing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of memory would primarily involve learning how to ride a bicycle?

    <p>Procedural memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the central executive in the Baddeley-Hitch model?

    <p>Control and coordinate cognitive processes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of working memory, which component is tasked with manipulating and maintaining visuospatial information?

    <p>Visuospatial sketchpad</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following scenarios best illustrates automatic processing?

    <p>Recalling a list of grocery items without rehearsal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does distraction have on memory recall in relation to working memory?

    <p>It increases the fragility of storage, leading to forgetfulness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement accurately describes the phonological loop's function?

    <p>It temporarily holds auditory information for immediate recall</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the primary and recency effect relate to memory recall?

    <p>Higher recall accuracy is observed for first and last items in a sequence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does the articulatory rehearsal system serve within the phonological loop?

    <p>To covertly and overtly repeat verbal information</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which scenario would top-down processing be primarily utilized?

    <p>Recognizing a familiar face in a crowd</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes controlled processes from automatic processes in cognitive tasks?

    <p>Controlled processes require conscious effort, while automatic processes operate without thought</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary characteristic of offline processing techniques?

    <p>Involvement of conscious judgment and intuition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In what way does top-down processing differ from bottom-up processing?

    <p>Top-down processing utilizes existing knowledge to interpret sensory information, while bottom-up emphasizes data from the environment.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements most accurately describes controlled processes?

    <p>They require significant cognitive resources and attention.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a defining feature of the information processing mode involving online techniques?

    <p>They enable comprehension through real-time feedback.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does the phonological loop primarily serve in the context of working memory?

    <p>It is responsible for maintaining and rehearsing auditory information.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes parallel processing from serial processing?

    <p>Parallel processing allows for simultaneous processing of multiple information streams.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes top-down processing?

    <p>Processing influenced by higher-level cognitive functions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes automatic processes from controlled processes?

    <p>Automatic processes require conscious effort and attention.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which situation is automatic processing most likely to occur?

    <p>While familiar information is processed with minimal cognitive load.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does bottom-up processing primarily function?

    <p>Through the sequential arrangement of sensory inputs without prior knowledge.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement correctly describes top-down processing in relation to speech perception?

    <p>It involves inferring missing sounds based on contextual cues.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement about the phonological loop is accurate?

    <p>It temporarily holds and manipulates acoustic information.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of the information processing model, what characterizes sensory stores?

    <p>They briefly retain input from all sensory modalities.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the nature of bottom-up processing?

    <p>It begins with specific details and builds towards a general understanding.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key characteristic of controlled processing?

    <p>It requires active attention and cognitive resources.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What key aspect differentiates parallel processing from serial processing?

    <p>Parallel processing operates on multiple streams of information simultaneously.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does parallel distributed processing (PDP) suggest about cognitive function?

    <p>Multiple cognitive processes operate at once and are interconnected.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which characteristic is true about the phonological loop in working memory?

    <p>It temporarily holds phonological information through rehearsal.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When does top-down processing have the most significant effect on language understanding?

    <p>When sentences are structurally ambiguous.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which process is typically invoked when a person is learning a new language?

    <p>Controlled processing predominates due to the novelty of the task.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the information processing model categorize permanent memory?

    <p>It includes knowledge, skills, and beliefs accumulated over time.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a major difference between top-down and bottom-up processing in information interpretation?

    <p>Top-down processing starts with a general understanding and fills in details.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In terms of language acquisition, what does the 'black box' model primarily refer to?

    <p>The unobservable cognitive processes underlying language understanding.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of memory is characterized by knowledge of how to perform tasks, such as riding a bicycle?

    <p>Procedural memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of processing involves interpreting incoming sensory data based on existing knowledge and experiences?

    <p>Top-down processing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which model of memory primarily describes the short-term holding and manipulation of auditory information?

    <p>Working memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference between automatic and controlled processes?

    <p>Controlled processes require conscious effort, while automatic processes do not.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which component of working memory is primarily responsible for managing verbal and auditory information?

    <p>Phonological loop</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of language acquisition, which component of the 'black box' model is responsible for producing language output?

    <p>Articulation of ideas</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes a scenario involving parallel processing?

    <p>Simultaneously recognizing a face and recalling its name from memory.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of memory involves recalling general knowledge about the world, such as facts and concepts?

    <p>Semantic memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which process would most likely require additional cognitive resources and be considered controlled?

    <p>Reading a complex technical manual</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term describes the phenomenon where verbal information is temporarily stored for subsequent processing?

    <p>Phonological loop</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Course Information

    • Course title: Issues, theories, and methods
    • Course code: LING/PSYC 370B
    • Dates: January 13th & 16th
    • Instructor: Gabrielle Manning

    Week 2 Roadmap

    • Psychological mechanisms
    • Memory
    • Theories of language acquisition
    • Research methods

    Psychological Mechanisms

    • Processing

    The Black Box

    • Input → Output
    • Input examples: images of thoughts, emotions, and ideas.
    • Output examples: Articulation, Production of ideas, and Recognition
    • Language acquisition
    • Articulation/production of ideas
    • Recognition

    Serial & Parallel Processing

    • Parallel processing: simultaneous processes
    • Serial processing: one process at a time
    • Parallel distributed processing (PDP): mind operates massively in parallel

    Examples

    • The words "RED", "DEBT", "THE," are presented with parts of the letters obscured
    • The obscured letters are easily inferred from the surrounding letters

    Top-Down & Bottom-Up Processing

    • Top-down processing: higher-level processing influences lower levels
    • Bottom-up processing: incoming information processed without influence from higher levels
    • Example words: THE CAT, DEBT, FISH, RED, SROT
    • Top-down processing example: recognition of words using prior knowledge
    • Lexical retrieval of words
    • Phonological processing of phonemes, syllables, and symbols

    Phoneme Restoration

    • When a phoneme is obscured, listeners fill in the missing sound
    • Examples:
    • "...eel was on the axel"
    • "...eel was on the shoe"
    • "...eel was on the orange" -"...eel was on the table"

    Automatic vs. Controlled Processes

    • Automatic processes: require little cognitive resources (e.g., reading)
    • Controlled processes: require substantial cognitive resources (e.g., color naming)

    Memory

    • Information processing model
    • Input/stimuli → Sensory stores (Visual, auditory, etc.) → Working memory (Current goals, consciousness, etc.) → Permanent memory (Knowledge, skills, beliefs)
    • Sensory stores: take in a variety of sensory input and register each of the five senses
    • Working memory: hold information in short-term memory, crucial for manipulating and holding information
    • Manipulation: work on information
    • Short-term memory: limited amount of information for a limited time
    • 7 ± 2 units of information
    • Memory span: number of items reliably recalled in correct order
    • Primary and recency effects: higher recall for first and last few list items

    The Baddeley-Hitch Model

    • Model of working memory
    • 3 Main Components:
      • Central executive: control center
      • Visuospatial sketchpad: visual and spatial information
      • Phonological loop: phonological (sound-based) information

    The Phonological Loop

    • Phonological store: holds phonological representations
    • Articulatory rehearsal system: covert/overt rehearsal of materials

    The Visuospatial Sketchpad

    • Maintain and manipulates visuospatial information
    • Form visual images, rotate images, convert words into images

    The Central Executive

    • Exerts executive control
    • "Assigns" the phonological loop to process/rehearse verbal material

    Permanent Memory

    • Encodes and stores memories that last long periods of time
    • 3 Types
      • Episodic: memory of an event
      • Semantic: generalized knowledge of the world
      • Procedural: information about how to do things

    Relevance for Language Processing

    • Sensory stores: pattern recognition for auditory signals
    • Working memory: chunking words from sentences into grammatical constituents
    • Permanent memory: semantic memory contains information on speech sounds and words

    Theories of Language Acquisition

    • Biological: language is a biological process, related to non-language processes, neural processes underlying language development
    • Generative: Language Acquisition Device, language structure knowledge, poverty of stimulus, innate knowledge
    • Social: language development = social process, interaction and social abilities.
    • Domain general Cognitive: same cognitive mechanisms for all types of learning, like rule learning, statistical learning.

    Universal Grammar (UG)

    • Language is universal and innate
    • Language Faculty provides the LAD, UG, and common knowledge
    • Principles: common among all languages
    • Parameters: language-specific settings for principles (e.g., grammatical gender)

    Grammatical Gender

    • Arbitrary noun classification
    • Marked/agree with other words

    Statistical Learning

    • 8 month olds segment streams of speech
    • Transitional probability: probability of a sequence based on another (example provided)

    Rule Learning

    • Infants learn rules
    • Preferences for opposite patterns than exposure (example provided)

    Nature vs. Nurture

    • Nativism: preexisting structure to interpret experience
    • Empiricism: blank slate, knowledge, reason, language comes from experience
    • Interactionism: experience + innate characteristics; language input is important for language development

    Research Methods

    • Methods focus on language comprehension, production, both
    • Longitudinal studies: track development over time
    • Cross-sectional studies: compare different age groups at a single point in time
    • Correlation studies: examine relationships between variables
    • Experimental studies: manipulate variables to determine cause and effect
    • Observational: observe developmental patterns; relationships between language development and non-linguistic factors

    Online vs Offline Techniques

    • Offline techniques (norming studies, judgements and intuitions, questions about language structure, metalinguistic knowledge): tap into competence
    • Online techniques (real-time processing, location of processes, questions related to performance): tap into processing

    Key Terms

    • Habituation: decrease in response to a stimulus due to repeated exposure
    • Familiarization: exposure to stimuli that will be in the test phase; practice with the task
    • Test: a single presentation of a stimulus
    • Block: a group of tests
    • (Pseudo) randomization: make the sequence of stimuli random
    • Order: different randomizations
    • List: stimulus inventory

    Comprehension Tasks

    • Standardized assessments (MacArthur-Bates CDI, PPVT, MLU)

    MacArthur-Bates CDI

    • Parental report; vocabulary, comprehension, production, gestures, grammar
    • Strong reliability and validity (data on pages 45)

    PPVT

    • Measure of receptive vocabulary (example images of items on page 46)

    MLU

    • Average length of utterances in a speech sample
    • MLU increases with age
    • Exceptions include unintentional repetitions, compound words, non-linguistic vocalizations, fillers, etc., (specific exceptions and examples on page 48, examples on page 49)

    High Amplitude Sucking

    • Infants suck harder on a pacifier to hear a sound
    • Sucking harder indicates interest
    • Sucking slower indicates no interest

    Head-turn Preference Paradigm

    • Used to look at infants' speech or visual preferences and/or learning
    • Measurement: amount of time infants orient their attention (example on page 52)

    Eye-Tracking

    • Measures position and movement of participant's eye gaze (example images on page 53)

    Visual World Paradigm

    • How we interact with language and the visual world
    • Realistic or semi-realistic scenes; series of objects
    • Measurements: proportion of looking, time-course analysis (examples on pages 54, 55)

    Electroencephalography (EEG)

    • Online measure
    • Electrical brain activity captured at the scalp via small electrodes
    • Captures macroscopic surface activity
    • Can see when groups of neurons fire
    • Deflections in continuous EEG signal in relation to an event
    • Language components are very, very small
    • Measured by peak amplitude (maximum height of a peak in microvolts; examples on page 57, 59)

    ERPs

    • Electrodes filled with conductive gel (example images on page 58)

    ERP Components

    • N400 effect: response to semantic anomaly (examples of sentences on page 59)
    • P600 effect: syntax violations (examples of sentences on page 59)
    • Mismatch negativity (MMN): response to a change of a sequence (examples of sequences on page 59)

    Spontaneous Speech

    • Investigate natural speech production
    • How much speech to record to be representative of natural speech (minimum 50 utterances)
    • Language environment analysis (LENA)

    CHILDES

    • Corpus of spontaneous speech data
    • Transcripts, audio, video
    • Cross-linguistic information from children of various language backgrounds (example of CHILDES data set on page 61)

    Elicited Production Tasks

    • Examiners create a context using verbal and non-verbal prompts.
    • Repetition/elicited imitation tasks: Participants repeat what they hear.

    ManyBabies

    • 100+ researchers, 70+ research labs.
    • Collection of studies and data.

    Summary

    • Various methods of investigating language development
    • Researcher must choose the best task/method for research question

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