Lifespan Development Psychology

• Lifespan development examines how people change and stay the same throughout life
• Developmental psychologists study lifelong development across physical, cognitive, and psychosocial domains

Normative Approach

• Normative psychologists determine "normal" development by studying large groups of children
• Norms are the average ages when children reach developmental milestones
• Biological milestones, like starting puberty, are universal
• Social milestones, like starting school, vary across cultures

Continuous vs. Discontinuous Development

• Continuous development views lifespan as a cumulative process, gradually improving existing skills
• An example of continuous development is adding inches to height each year
• Discontinuous development views lifespan as occurring in unique stages at specific times or ages

Universal vs. Individual Development

• Stage theories propose development is universal
• Children worldwide reach language milestones in a similar sequence
• Cultural differences in childcare can accelerate or inhibit developmental milestones

Nature vs. Nurture

• Nature refers to biology and genetics
• Nurture refers to environment and culture
• The nature vs. nurture debate explores how genetics and environment shape personality and traits

Psychosexual Theory (Sigmund Freud)

• Childhood experiences shape adult personality and behavior
• Development is viewed as discontinuous
• Inadequate nurturance during a stage can lead to fixation
• Pleasure-seeking urges focus on different erogenous zones across five stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital

Psychosocial Theory (Erik Erikson)

• Emphasizes the social nature of development
• Argues personality develops across the lifespan
• Social interactions affects the sense of self (ego identity)
• Each stage involves a psychosocial task to master for competence

Erikson's Psychosocial Stages of Development

• Trust vs. Mistrust (0-1 year): Trust when basic needs are met
• Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt (1-3 years): Develop independence
• Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6 years): Take initiative without overstepping boundaries
• Industry vs. Inferiority (7-11 years): Develop self-confidence
• Identity vs. Confusion (12-18 years): Experiment with identity and roles
• Intimacy vs. Isolation (19-29 years): Establish intimate relationships
• Generativity vs. Stagnation (30-64 years): Contribute to society
• Integrity vs. Despair (65+ years): Assess life meaning

Cognitive Theory (Jean Piaget)

• Focuses on children's cognitive growth through specific stages.
• Children develop schemata (concepts to categorize and interpret information)
• Assimilation incorporates information into existing schemata
• Accommodation changes schemata based on new information

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

• Sensorimotor (0-2 years): Experience world through senses and actions; develop object permanence
• Preoperational (2-6 years): Use words and images, lack logical reasoning; engage in pretend play but are egocentric
• Concrete Operational (7-11 years): Understand concrete events and perform arithmetical operations; conversation skills develop
• Formal Operational (12+ years): Formal operations and abstract reasoning are utilized

Theory of Moral Development (Lawrence Kohlberg)

• Focuses on three stages of moral development which discern right from wrong
• Pre-conventional morality, behavior driven by avoiding punishment
• Conventional morality, behavior driven by social approval
• Post-conventional morality, behavior driven by balance of social order and individual rights

Stages of Development

• Stages include Prenatal, Infancy, Childhood, Adolescence, Emerging Adulthood, and Adulthood

Prenatal Development

• Germinal Stage (Weeks 1-2): Sperm fertilizes egg forming a zygote
• Zygote divides via mitosis
• Embryonic Stage (Weeks 3-8): Zygote implants and becomes an embryo
• Zygote divides forming organs, the placenta provides nourishment via umbilical cord
• Fetal Stage (Weeks 9-40): The embryo becomes a fetus
• The baby's brain and body develops until full-term
• A teratogen can cause damage to the developing embryo or fetus

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

• Collection of birth defects from heavy alcohol consumption during pregnancy

• Alcohol is the leading preventable cause of mental retardation

• Physical effects: small head, abnormal facial features

• Cognitive effects: poor judgment, impulse control, higher rates of ADHD, learning issues, lower IQ scores

• Smoking during pregnancy reduces oxygen and can cause premature birth, low birth weight, stillbirth, and SIDS

Newborn Reflexes

• Newborn reflexes are inborn automatic responses aiding survival
• Rooting reflex: turns head towards cheek touch
• Sucking reflex: suck on objects placed in the mouth
• Grasping reflex: cling to objects in hands
• Moro reflex: spreads and pulls back arms when startled

Sensory Abilities

• Sensory abilities are not fully developed at birth
• Vision is the least developed sense
• Prefer mother’s voice, and can distinguish mother's smell

Physical Development/Growth

• Rapid growth during infancy
• Slows down around age 4-6
• Girls have a growth spurt around age 8/9 - 12

Nervous System

• Blooming period: neural pathways form new connections during infancy and toddlerhood
• Pruning period: neural connections are reduced during childhood and adolescence
• Brain size increases rapidly (especially the frontal lobe during ages 3-6)
• Reaching 55% of adult size at age 2, and 90% at age 6

Motor development

• Motor skills are ability to move and manipulate objects
• Fine motor skills enable small actions to be coordinated
• Gross motor skills involve large muscle groups

Cognitive Development (Misconceptions)

• Piaget thought that children's ability to understand objects developed slowly, which is now considered incorrect
• Cognitive milestones:
  • 6-9 months can shake their head "no"
  • 9-12 months will respond to verbal requests
  • 8 months understand object permanence
• Toddlers understand somebody will look for objects where asked

Attachment (Harlow)

• Harlow separated monkeys from mothers and presented them with the choice of two surrogate mothers
• The options were one that was wire mesh and dispensed milk or one from cloth that did not dispense milk
• Monkeys spent time clinging to the cloth monkey and only went to the wire monkey for food
• Feelings of comfort and security are the critical components of maternal-infant bonding

Attachment (Bowlby)

• Attachment is defined as the affectional bond/tie that an infant forms with the mother
• Bond must be made with a primary caregiver for normal social and emotional development
• Attachment is seen as an all-or-nothing process

Secure Base

• Secure base is a parental presence that gives the child a sense of safety

Requirements for a Healthy Attachment

• The caregiver must be responsive to physical, social and emotional needs
• Caregiver and child must engage in mutually enjoyable interactions

Attachment Styles (Ainsworth)

• Ainsworth identified attachment styles with the Strange Situation experiment which placed a caregiver, infant, and toys in a room
  • Secure: child uses parent as a secure base and shows distress when the mother left
  • Avoidant: unresponsive to parent and slow to show react when mother returned
  • Resistant: show clingy behavior but reject attempts to interact
  • Disorganized: show odd behavior around caregiver

Self-Concept (Self-Awareness)

• Development of a positive sense of self is the main psychosocial milestone of childhood
• Positive self-concept is associated with children who are confident, do better in school and are more willing to try new activities
• By 18 months a baby can recognize themselves in the mirror
• By 24-46 months they can recognize themselves in a photo

Self-Concept & Social Behavior

• Children increase social behavior after establishing a self-concept
• Age 2-4 display:
  • Enjoy playing with other children
  • Can label themselves as boy or girl
• Age 4 display:
  • Can cooperate and share
  • Can initiate tasks and carry out plans
• Age 6 display:
  • Can identify themselves in terms of group membership

Parenting Styles (Baumrind)

• Authoritative: reasonable demands and consistent limits, express warmth
• Authoritarian: high value on conformity and obedience, are often rigid
• Permissive: make few demands and rarely use punishment
• Uninvolved: are indifferent, uninvolved, and sometimes neglectful

Temperament

• Temperament is innate traits that influence reactions with the environment
• Easy temperament evokes positive emotions with warm and responsive parenting
• Difficult temperament evokes irritation and can cause parents to withdraw

Adolescence; Physical

• Adrenarche is the maturing of adrenal glands
• Gonadarche is the maturing of sex glands
• Secondary sexual characteristics develop
• Menarche is the beginning of menstrual periods for girls
• Spermarche is first ejaculation for boys
• Growth spurts exists in both sex's body

Physical Development

• Brain growth continues into the early 20s
• Frontal lobe is important for judgement, impulse control, and planning
• The development of new skills and processing increases efficiency

Psychosocial Development

• Refine sense of self as they relate to others -Adolescents are in the identity vs role confusion stage

Emerging Adulthood

• 18 years to mid 20s
• Identity exploration is focused on work and love

Adulthood: Physical

• Early Adulthood (20s-40s): Physical abilities are at their peak
• Middle Adulthood (40s-60s): Physical decline is gradual, skin loses elasticity, and visual acuity decreases

Cognitive Development

• Cognitive abilities remain steady throughout early and middle adulthood
• Crystalized intelligence remains steady or improves
• Fluid intelligence begins to decline

Psychosocial Development

• Theorists believe that adults define themselves by their job, or relationships with family
• Job satisfaction is closely tied to work that involves contact with other people
• Positive influences on well-being include:
  • Having a stable marriage
  • Having children

Death and Dying

• In some cultures, people's bodies may be buried in a cemetery after death