Legal and Court Terms

• Affirmed means the court of appeals agrees with the lower court's decision, which will stand as is.
• Assembly Line Justice is rapid case processing in lower courts, potentially neglecting defendants' rights.
• Certiorari Power is an appellate court's authority to request a lower court's case record for review.
• Courts of General Jurisdiction can hear cases of all kinds, unlike courts of limited jurisdiction handling minor cases.
• Doe v. Renfrow (1981) ruled that suspicionless dog sniffs in public schools are not searches under the Fourth Amendment.
• Judicial Independence is the principle that the judiciary should be free from undue influence from other government branches and private interests.
• Judicial Misconduct refers to unethical behavior by a judge.
• Kent v. United States (1966) established that juveniles must be afforded certain due process rights.
• Lower Courts are courts whose decisions are subject to appeal, often referring to trial courts.
• Municipal Courts are lower courts with jurisdiction over minor offenses within a city.
• New Jersey v. TLO (1985) determined that school officials don't need a warrant to search students under their supervision.
• Police Courts are lower courts that handle minor crimes and violations.
• Qutb v. Strauss (1993) upheld curfew laws as constitutional, balancing community welfare with juvenile liberty.
• Reversed means a higher court has invalidated or revoked a lower court's decision.
• Speedy Trial Act of 1974 set federal time limits for indictments, arraignments, and criminal prosecutions.
• Traffic Courts deal with petty offenses like traffic citations.
• U.S. Courts of Appeal are appellate courts in each of the 11 federal judicial districts.
• U.S. District Courts are the trial courts of general jurisdiction in the federal court system.

Prosecution and Defense

• Argersinger v. Hamlin (1972) requires counsel appointment before a prison sentence is levied.
• Assistant U.S. Attorneys are federal prosecutors in criminal cases.
• City Attorneys are civil servant lawyers representing a city in legal matters, including prosecutions.
• District Attorney (D.A.) is an elected official prosecuting accused persons for the state.
• Docket is a log of a case's history with brief chronological entries summarizing court proceedings.
• Faretta v. California (1975) established the right to self-representation in criminal cases.
• Independent Counsel is a lawyer appointed by the government to investigate government official misconduct.
• Indigent Defendant is someone who cannot afford an attorney.
• Nolle Prosequi is a prosecutor's formal notice of dropping a case.
• State's Attorney represents a state's interests in court, usually as a prosecutor.
• United States Attorneys conduct most of the trial work in which the United States is a party.

Juvenile Court Proceedings

• Adjudicated Delinquent is a juvenile found guilty of a delinquent act.
• Adjudicatory Hearing is a fact-finding process to determine if allegations in a petition are sustained.
• Bail Reform Act of 1984 sets procedures for releasing or detaining an arrested person pending trial, sentence, and appeal.
• Bifurcated Hearing is a two-part juvenile court proceeding separating the adjudicatory and disposition phases.
• Coffin v. U.S. (1895) established the presumption of innocence in American criminal law.
• Community Defender Organization are non-profits providing attorneys to indigent defendants.
• Criminal Justice Act (CJA) of 1964 established a system for appointing and compensating lawyers for indigent defendants in federal criminal proceedings.
• Discovery involves procedures to obtain evidence disclosure before trial.
• Disposition is the phase in juvenile court analogous to sentencing in adult court.
• Disposition Hearing determines appropriate training and treatment for the child.
• Ex Parte is a proceeding brought before a court by one party without notice to the other.
• Exculpatory Evidence tends to prove the defendant's innocence.
• Federal Public Defender is a full-time attorney employed by the federal courts to defend those who cannot afford counsel.
• Guilty Plea is an admission of culpability for a crime.
• Judicial Diversion treats a case without an official conviction record if conditions are met.
• Motion to Suppress requests a judge to disallow certain evidence at trial.
• Nolo Contendere Plea is a "no contest" plea.
• Not Guilty Plea denies culpability for the alleged criminal act.
• Petition is a document filed in juvenile court alleging delinquency and requesting court jurisdiction.
• Post-disposition Hearing determines the outcome for the juvenile.
• Pretrial Motions are motions made before trial, such as motions to suppress evidence.
• Pro Bono Publico means "for the public good," often used for attorneys representing indigent clients for free.
• Racketeering and Corrupt Influence Organization (RICO) is a federal statute designed to prosecute organized crime.
• Release on Recognizance (ROR) releases a defendant based on their promise to return to court.
• Sustaining the Petition is a juvenile judge's finding that allegations are true, analogous to a guilty verdict.
• U.S. v. Salerno (1987) ruled that pretrial detention of a dangerous defendant is not a due process violation if dangerousness is proven.

Trial Procedures and Evidence

• Aggravating Circumstances increase the seriousness of a criminal act.
• Alibi is a defense claiming the accused was elsewhere when the crime occurred.
• Bench Trial is a trial without a jury, where the judge finds the facts.
• Bifurcated Trial has separate phases for determining guilt and sentencing.
• Challenge for Cause excludes a potential juror for a legal reason.
• Charge to the Jury is a judge's explanation of the law to the jury before deliberation.
• Circumstantial Evidence requires an inference to be made by the fact-finder.
• Closing Arguments reiterate each side's main points at the end of a trial.
• Confrontation Clause in the Sixth Amendment guarantees the right to face accusers.
• Direct Evidence proves a fact without needing inferences.
• Double Jeopardy is unconstitutionally prosecuting someone twice for the same offense.
• Federal Rules of Evidence were established by SCOTUS to codify rules for presenting evidence in federal courts.
• Foreperson is the jury leader, responsible for reading the verdict.
• Hearsay is evidence from a witness who didn't directly experience the incident.
• Hung Jury cannot reach a decision, resulting in a mistrial.
• Jury Instructions are a judge's directions to the jury on factual questions and legal rules.
• Jury Nullification is a not guilty verdict based on the jury's belief that the defendant doesn't deserve punishment.
• Mitigating Circumstances reduce culpability, such as the defendant's age or lack of criminal record.
• Motion for a New Trial is a request for a retrial due to significant legal errors.
• Peremptory Challenge allows each side to exclude a limited number of potential jurors without cause.
• Rebuttal is the phase where one side attempts to refute the other's evidence.
• Right to a Public Trial is guaranteed by the Sixth Amendment.
• Right to a Speedy Trial is guaranteed by the Sixth Amendment to prevent lengthy jail time before trial.
• Right to a Trial by Jury is guaranteed by the Sixth Amendment to ensure fair trials.
• Right to Confront Witnesses is the Sixth Amendment guarantee to face accusers in court.
• Right to Notice of Accusations is the Sixth Amendment guarantee to be informed of charges.
• Rules of Evidence govern what evidence is admissible in court.
• Sequester isolates jurors to prevent exposure to outside information.
• Testimonial Evidence is an oral or written statement used as proof.
• Voir Dire is the jury selection process involving questioning potential jurors.

Sentencing and Corrections

• Appeal is a request to a higher court to review a decision.
• Asset Forfeiture is the the confiscation of assets by the government.
• Boot Camps are short-term correctional programs resembling military basic training.
• Community Service is unpaid work for social benefit.
• Concurrent Sentence allows prison terms for multiple offenses to be served simultaneously.
• Consecutive Sentence requires prison terms to be served one after the other.
• Day Fine assesses fine amounts based on the offender's income.
• Death Penalty is a state-sanctioned homicide as punishment for crime.
• Determinate Sentencing is a fixed prison sentence not reduced by parole.
• Electronic Monitoring uses technology to track a person's movements for court-ordered compliance.
• Fine is money paid to the government as punishment.
• Forfeiture is surrendering property to the government as punishment.
• Good Time is time taken off a sentence for good behavior in prison.
• Home Confinement requires individuals to stay at home except for approved activities.
• House Arrest is another name for Home Confinement.
• Indeterminate Sentencing ties imprisonment length to inmate conduct rather than a set term.
• Intensive Supervision Probation (ISP) is an alternative to incarceration with more intense supervision than standard probation.
• Mandatory Sentences limit judicial discretion in sentence length.
• Overturn means a higher court reverses a lower court's decision.
• Presentence Investigation Report summarizes background information for appropriate sentencing.
• Probation releases a person to the community under supervision with certain conditions.
• Proportionality Doctrine dictates that punishment should fit the crime.
• Remand means to send back.
• Scarlet-Letter Punishments aim to humiliate offenders.
• Sentencing is determining punishment for a convicted person.
• Sentencing Hearing is separated from the finding of guilt in some jurisdictions.
• Sentencing Reform Act of 1984 created the U.S. Sentencing Commission to set federal sentencing guidelines.
• Sentencing Statute establishes punishments for specific crimes.
• U.S. Sentencing Commission establishes sentencing policies for the federal court system.
• Uphold means an appellate court agrees with and affirms a lower court's decision.
• Victim Impact Statement is a statement from the victim of a crime to the sentencing judge.