Leadership Theories and Golem Effect Quiz

Leadership Theories

• Leadership theories are assumptions, propositions, or accepted facts
• They explain cause-and-effect relationships among observed phenomena
• The word "theory" originates from the Greek word "thorós", meaning spectator, and emphasizes a fact
• Theories are mental models (images, beliefs, ideas) and verbal descriptions formed from experiences that guide thoughts and actions

Great Man Theory

• The core principle is "Great leaders are born, not made"
• It suggests leadership capacity is innate, meaning a person is either a natural leader or not
• The term "Great Man" was used because leadership was historically perceived as a male quality, especially in military contexts
• This theory gained popularity in the 19th century
• Famous historical figures (e.g., Lincoln, Caesar, Gandhi) contributed to the notion of innate leadership qualities
• Leaders emerged seemingly mysteriously, taking control and leading groups to success (e.g., Tackie Komey, Yaa Asantewa, Nkrumah)
• Thomas Carlyle, influential in the 1840s, believed history revolves around the lives of great men, highlighting the importance of innate qualities in leadership
• It was believed great men possess special traits that distinguish them

Criticisms of Great Man Theory

• Herbert Spencer, a sociologist from the 1860s, argued that great leaders are products of their societies, making their actions dependent on pre-existing social conditions
• A follower of this theory may focus on famous figures when analysing historical events (e.g., the Second World War)
• Critics point out great leaders were shaped by circumstances that predated their lives

Trait Theory

• In the early 20th century, studies focused on specific leadership traits exhibited by great social, political, and military leaders
• Traits were viewed as inherent qualities
• It was initially believed people are born with certain traits, and only "great" people possess these traits
• The goal of trait theory was to identify shared traits among leaders
• Leadership studies focused on discernible personal characteristics
• Traits are recurring regularities in a person's behaviour
• Traits influence behaviour
• Some traits are not visible but can be inferred from consistent patterns of behaviour and measured by personality inventories
• Core traits of successful leaders were identified through research
• These traits act as preconditions for leadership potential and are not necessarily indicators of the ability to be a leader

Traits Associated with Leadership Emergence and Leadership Effectiveness

• Physiological: Appearance, height, weight
• Demographic: Age, education, socioeconomic background
• Personality/Persona: Self-confidence, aggressiveness
• Intellective: Intelligence, decisiveness, judgment, knowledge
• Task-related: Achievement drive, initiative, persistence
• Social characteristics: Affability, cooperativeness

Studies of Leadership Traits: Various Researchers and Their Findings

• Stogdill (1948): intelligence, alertness, insight, responsibility, persistence, initiative, self-confidence, and sociability
• Mann (1959): intelligence, masculinity, adjustment, dominance, extraversion, and conservatism
• Stogdill (1974): achievement, persistence, insight, initiative, self-confidence, responsibility, cooperativeness, tolerance, influence, and sociability
• Lord, DeVader, and Alliger (1986): intelligence, masculinity, and dominance
• Kirkpatrick and Locke (1991): drive, motivation, integrity, confidence, cognitive ability, and task knowledge
• Zaccaro, Kemp, and Bader (2004): cognitive abilities, extraversion, conscientiousness, emotional stability, openness, agreeableness, motivation, social intelligence, self-monitoring, and problem-solving
• These researchers identified and elaborated on different traits, with some recurring traits and additional attributes

Criticisms of Trait Theory

• Some scholars questioned the universality of leadership traits, suggesting that no consistent set of traits could reliably differentiate leaders from non-leaders across all situations
• Traits were reported to be strongly associated with individual perceptions of leadership behavior
• Effective leaders are sometimes viewed as unique in their traits.
• The list of traits appears endless
• Traits were often considered in isolation without context, making it too simplistic
• The criteria were based on subjective interpretations from experience, and author observation
• The model failed to investigate traits in connection with leadership outcomes
• Scholars challenged the universal traits by suggesting that no consistent set of them reliably distinguish leaders from non-leaders in different situations

Limitations of Trait Theory

• It tries to relate physical traits (height, weight) to leadership effectiveness
• Many traits are strongly associated with situational factors (e.g., military leadership may require certain physical attributes)
• This theory doesn't address the issue of how people with leadership qualities don't always achieve leadership roles
• The scope of traits identified is large and varied, making it hard to generalize

Leadership Trait Questionnaire (LTQ)

• LTQ aims to measure personality characteristics related to leadership
• Participants (leaders and people familiar with the leader) should complete the questionnaire
• The LTQ offers a structured means to assess leadership traits

Managerial (Leadership) Grid

• A leadership model that combines concern for production with concern for people
• Presented five behavioral styles: 1,1 Impoverished (low concern for both), 9,1 Authority-Compliance (high concern for production, low concern for people),  1,9 Country Club (low concern for production, high concern for people), 5,5 Middle of the Road (balanced concern for both),  9,9 Team (high concern for both)
• Extensively used in organizational training and development

Detailed Descriptions of Managerial Grid Styles:

• (1, 1) Impoverished Management: Leaders have minimal concern for both people and production, prioritizing their employment stability
• (9, 1) Authority-Compliance: Leaders excel at efficiency, control and dominance, with low concern for followers.
•  (1, 9) Country Club Management: Managers focus on employee happiness and comfort, sometimes at the expense of productivity
• (5, 5) Middle of the Road Management: Balanced approach that balances production and people concerns
• (9, 9) Team Management: Leaders emphasize commitment, teamwork, and employee involvement

Pygmalion Effect

• A self-fulfilling prophecy where expectations influence outcomes
• When leaders have higher expectations of employees, those employees are more likely to perform well
• A leader's positive expectations can result in a better team performance

The Golem Effect

• The opposite of the Pygmalion effect
• Lower expectations can result in lower employee performance
• Leaders who believe certain employees lack skills can result in them performing worse because their performance or approach is negatively impacted
•  This may manifest as managers setting explicit targets, assigning routine tasks, monitoring employees too closely, focusing on operational aspects rather than strategic goals