Untitled Quiz

Computer Architecture SCS3203 Lecture 1

•  The lecture covered computer organization and architecture, including an introduction, organization, and architecture
•  Topics to be covered included: architecture and organization, structure and functions, and computer evolution and performance
•  Computer architecture includes attributes of a system visible to the programmer, having a direct impact on the logical execution of a program. Organizational attributes include hardware details, control signals, interfaces between the computer and peripherals, and memory technology
•  Computer organisation includes instruction set, number of bits used to represent various data types, I/O mechanisms, techniques for addressing memory, and the operational units and connections that realize architectural specifications
•  IBM System/370 architecture was introduced in 1970, including a variety of models and allowing upgrades to more expensive/faster ones without abandoning existing software. New models were designed with improved technology while maintaining compatibility.

Basic Concepts and Computer Evolution

•  Computer architecture and evolution were discussed, including topics to be covered
•  The presentation also outlined the topics of structure and function, along with computer evolution and performance

Topics to be Covered

•  Architecture and Organization
• Structure and Functions
• Computer Evolution and Performance

Structure and Function

•  Hierarchical systems are made up of interrelated subsystems
•  The hierarchical nature of complex systems is key for their description and design. Designers only need to focus on a specific layer of the system at once. Structure relates how components work together. Function relates to the process each component completes.

Function

•  Four basic computer functions include data processing—the different forms data takes and associated processing, data storage—short-term and long-term storage, data movement that includes input/output (I/O) or peripheral devices, and control which manages the computer's resources and responds to instructions
• Input/output (I/O) refers to data transfer between the computer and peripheral devices. Data communication refers to transferring data over distances.

Structure

• A computer has four primary components—I/O, CPU,Main memory, and system interconnection
• The CPU handles all the processing and data work for the computer
• Main memory stores all the data used by the program
• System interconnection is the method of communication for data sharing between the CPU,I/O and Main memory.
• Registers and control unit are part of CPU

Multicore Computer Structure

• A Central Processing Unit (CPU) is a portion of the computer that manages and executes instructions.
• A CPU consists of an arithmetic-logic unit (ALU), a control unit, and registers.
• A core is an individual processing unit on the processor chip.
• A processor is a physical piece of silicon holding one or more cores. It is the computer component that functions to interpret and execute instructions
• A multicore processor has multiple cores

Cache Memory

•  Cache memory is a set of memory layers between the processor and main memory and is a smaller and faster memory than main memory. Data likely used in the future is moved from the main memory to the cache to improve access speed.
•  Greater caching performance can be obtained by using multiple levels of cache, such as L1, L2, and L3, which progressively increase distance from the core
• By having data stored in the cache likely needed more frequently, the processor has faster access to the data
• Data access is sped up by placing likely-to-be used data in cache

IBM System 370 Architecture

•  IBM System/370 architecture was released in 1970
•  The architecture was designed to support a range of models with varying power and performance capabilities
•  Software written for one model could potentially run on versions with different configurations

Computer Evolution and Performance

• Computer evolution is characterized by:
• Mechanical computers (1642-1940).
• Vacuum tubes (1940-1955).
• Transistors (1956-1963).
• Integrated Circuits (1964-1971).
• VLSI-Integration (1971-present).
• Artificial Intelligence (Present and Beyond).

The Zero Generation

•  Pascal's machine—used for addition and subtraction
•  Analytical Engine—had four main components: store, mill, input, and output; was a precursor to modern computing

Charles Babbage

• Difference Engine 1823—used as a successful automatic calculator
• Analytical Engine 1833—was the forerunner to modern computers, as the first concept of a general-purpose computer

History of Computers – First Generation – Vacuum Tubes

• Vacuum tubes were used in early digital circuits and memory.
• The IAS computer utilized the stored-program concept.
• John von Neumann developed the fundamental design
• The EDVAC design began at the Princeton Institute for Advanced Studies
• It was completed in 1952

The Von Neumann Machine

•  The ENIAC program input task was challenging
•  Von Neumann's design included a main memory to store both instructions and data, an arithmetic logic unit (ALU) that operates on binary data, a control unit that interprets and executes instructions, and input/output (I/O) equipment

IAS Instruction Cycle

• Fetch cycle - the opcode of the next instruction is loaded into the IR and the address portion is loaded into the MAR
• Instruction is then fetched from IBR, or loaded into the MBR and eventually IBR, IR and MAR
• Execute cycle - Control interprets opcode to execute the instruction

Registers

•  Memory buffer register (MBR): stores a word to be written from or read into the memory
•  Memory address register (MAR): contains the memory address for the word
•  Instruction register (IR): contains the instruction being executed
• Instruction buffer register (IBR): temporarily holds the right-hand instruction
• Program counter (PC): contains the address of the next instruction
•  Accumulator (AC): temporarily holds operands and results of ALU operations

Second Generation Computers

•  Introduced: more complex arithmetic and logic units and control units, the use of high-level programming languages, the provision of system software
• The ability to Load programs, move data to peripherals and perform common computations

Third Generation Computers – Integrated Circuits

• 1958 saw the invention of the integrated circuit
• Discrete component: single, self-contained transistors
• Manufactured separately and soldered onto boards
• Manufacturing was expensive and complex
• IBM System/360 and DEC PDP-8 were key components of this generation

Fundamental Computer Elements

•  Boolean logic function—the function takes an input and returns an output. This function is used as a gate
•  Binary storage cell—this cell is used as a memory, in which the activation signal is read from or written to the cell
•  Input/output: this is for controlling the flow of information between the computer and the environment

Integrated Circuits

• A computer consists of gates, memory cells, and interconnections
• Gates are constructed with simple digital electronic components
• Exploits the fact that components such as transistors, resistors, and conductors can be fabricated from a semiconductor such as silicon
• Many transistors can be crafted at once on a silicon wafer – making the production of integrated circuits faster and cheaper

Later Generations

• LSI – Large Scale Integration
• VLSI – Very Large Scale Integration
• ULSI – Ultra Large Scale Integration

Semiconductor Memory

• 1970, Fairchild produced first relative capacious memory components
• 1974, price per bit of semiconductor memory dropped below the price per bit of core memory
• Since 1970, semiconductor memory has undergone 13 generations
• Each generation's storage density is four times the previous, alongside the declining cost and access time of the memory

Microprocessors

•  The density of elements on processor chips increased, leading to fewer chips for computers
• Intel created the 4004 chip: the world's first general-purpose microprocessor chip
• 1972 Intel created the 8008 – first 8-bit microprocessor
• 1974 Intel created the 8080 – first general-purpose microprocessor
•  1970s processors with varying specifications and advancements (e.g., 4004, 8008, 8080, 8086, 8088)

Evolution of Intel Microprocessors

•  This section covers the evolution of Intel microprocessors, details on major design specifications, including features like clock speeds, clock width, and addressable memory. 
• Early processors (4004, 8008, 8080, 8086, 8088) had relatively low clock speeds and limited capabilities, gradually improving in later models.

IBM System/360

• Announced in 1964, the IBM System/360 introduced a series of models that are compatible, making it possible for programs written on one of the components in series to transfer over to a different one.

Family Characteristics

•  Similar or identical instruction set, increasing speed, increasing number of I/O ports, increasing memory size, increasing cost

PDP-8 Bus Structure

•  The PDP-8 bus is described by a diagram and the components of the PDP-8. 

Deeply Embedded Systems

•  Subsets of embedded systems that feature more complex resource constraint in terms of memory, processor size, the time available, and power consumption
•  Microcontrollers are used in place of microprocessors in deeply embedded systems, which lack user interaction, are built for a series of tasks with little user interface. Instructions are burned into the memory (ROM)

ARM

•  A processor architecture focused on embedded systems
•  Designed for small die size and low power requirements
•  Popular in embedded systems

ARM Products

• List, and description of different ARM product categories

Cloud Computing

•  NIST defines cloud computing as a model for enabling on-demand network access to shared computing resources, which can be readily provisioned and released with minimal management effort.
•  The model utilizes economies of scale in professional network and security management.
•  The consumer will only pay for requested storage and services. Cloud providers handle the security aspects.

Cloud Networking

• Network management needed to enable cloud computing
• A network is needed to allow high-performance network linkages between providers and subscribers.

Cloud Storage

•  Database storage and databases delivered through cloud servers, enables businesses and consumers utilize data storage solutions that scale to fit their needs.

Alternative Information Technology Architectures

•  Diagram illustrating the different architectural orientations of Information Technologies. Shows different types/aspects for how the technology is managed/implemented