Podcast
Questions and Answers
Which component of a computer is responsible for managing the computer's resources?
Which component of a computer is responsible for managing the computer's resources?
What describes the primary function of the Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) in a CPU?
What describes the primary function of the Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) in a CPU?
What is true about cache memory?
What is true about cache memory?
Which factor does NOT directly influence the logical execution of a program?
Which factor does NOT directly influence the logical execution of a program?
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How does the IBM System/370 architecture protect software investments?
How does the IBM System/370 architecture protect software investments?
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In a multicore processor, what is referred to as a 'core'?
In a multicore processor, what is referred to as a 'core'?
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Which of the following is NOT a basic function of a computer?
Which of the following is NOT a basic function of a computer?
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Which level of cache memory is closest to the core of a processor?
Which level of cache memory is closest to the core of a processor?
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What was the main focus of Charles Babbage's Analytical Engine?
What was the main focus of Charles Babbage's Analytical Engine?
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Which generation of computers utilized vacuum tubes?
Which generation of computers utilized vacuum tubes?
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What significant design concept was introduced by John von Neumann?
What significant design concept was introduced by John von Neumann?
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What was the purpose of the IAS computer?
What was the purpose of the IAS computer?
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Which component is NOT part of a stored-program computer?
Which component is NOT part of a stored-program computer?
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In the context of computer generations, what does VLSI stand for?
In the context of computer generations, what does VLSI stand for?
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Which of the following describes a characteristic of the third generation of computers?
Which of the following describes a characteristic of the third generation of computers?
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What capability differentiates the fifth generation of computers?
What capability differentiates the fifth generation of computers?
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Which of the following best describes Pascal's machine?
Which of the following best describes Pascal's machine?
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Which year marked the beginning of the second generation of computers?
Which year marked the beginning of the second generation of computers?
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What technology replaced vacuum tubes in the second generation of computers?
What technology replaced vacuum tubes in the second generation of computers?
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Which of the following represents the typical speed of first generation computers?
Which of the following represents the typical speed of first generation computers?
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What was a significant advantage of the IBM System/360 announced in 1964?
What was a significant advantage of the IBM System/360 announced in 1964?
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Which development marked the transition from discrete components to integrated circuits?
Which development marked the transition from discrete components to integrated circuits?
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According to Moore’s Law, what was the original observation made by Gordon Moore in 1965?
According to Moore’s Law, what was the original observation made by Gordon Moore in 1965?
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What is the primary role of the memory address register (MAR)?
What is the primary role of the memory address register (MAR)?
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Which component holds the opcode instruction currently being executed?
Which component holds the opcode instruction currently being executed?
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What does the program counter (PC) indicate?
What does the program counter (PC) indicate?
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Which register temporarily holds operands and results from arithmetic-logic unit (ALU) operations?
Which register temporarily holds operands and results from arithmetic-logic unit (ALU) operations?
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What information is contained within the memory buffer register (MBR)?
What information is contained within the memory buffer register (MBR)?
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Which components make up the instruction word format?
Which components make up the instruction word format?
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What is the function of the instruction buffer register (IBR)?
What is the function of the instruction buffer register (IBR)?
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In the IAS structure, what does the 'control circuits' function entail?
In the IAS structure, what does the 'control circuits' function entail?
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Which register contains the address of the next instruction to be fetched from memory?
Which register contains the address of the next instruction to be fetched from memory?
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What do the left and right parts of the instruction word represent?
What do the left and right parts of the instruction word represent?
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What does the Fetch cycle involve?
What does the Fetch cycle involve?
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During the execution phase, what does the control circuitry primarily do?
During the execution phase, what does the control circuitry primarily do?
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If the accumulator (AC) is greater than zero during the execution phase, what is the subsequent action?
If the accumulator (AC) is greater than zero during the execution phase, what is the subsequent action?
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What is the purpose of the MAR during the instruction cycle?
What is the purpose of the MAR during the instruction cycle?
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Which component holds the instruction before it is decoded?
Which component holds the instruction before it is decoded?
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What does the Program Counter (PC) do after fetching an instruction?
What does the Program Counter (PC) do after fetching an instruction?
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Where is the opcode of the next instruction first loaded during the fetch cycle?
Where is the opcode of the next instruction first loaded during the fetch cycle?
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Which of the following is true regarding the M(X) notation in the content?
Which of the following is true regarding the M(X) notation in the content?
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Which part is involved in moving data or performing operations during instruction execution?
Which part is involved in moving data or performing operations during instruction execution?
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What is the function of the MBR in the fetch cycle?
What is the function of the MBR in the fetch cycle?
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Study Notes
Computer Architecture SCS3203 Lecture 1
- The lecture covered computer organization and architecture, including an introduction, organization, and architecture
- Topics to be covered included: architecture and organization, structure and functions, and computer evolution and performance
- Computer architecture includes attributes of a system visible to the programmer, having a direct impact on the logical execution of a program. Organizational attributes include hardware details, control signals, interfaces between the computer and peripherals, and memory technology
- Computer organisation includes instruction set, number of bits used to represent various data types, I/O mechanisms, techniques for addressing memory, and the operational units and connections that realize architectural specifications
- IBM System/370 architecture was introduced in 1970, including a variety of models and allowing upgrades to more expensive/faster ones without abandoning existing software. New models were designed with improved technology while maintaining compatibility.
Basic Concepts and Computer Evolution
- Computer architecture and evolution were discussed, including topics to be covered
- The presentation also outlined the topics of structure and function, along with computer evolution and performance
Topics to be Covered
- Architecture and Organization
- Structure and Functions
- Computer Evolution and Performance
Structure and Function
- Hierarchical systems are made up of interrelated subsystems
- The hierarchical nature of complex systems is key for their description and design. Designers only need to focus on a specific layer of the system at once. Structure relates how components work together. Function relates to the process each component completes.
Function
- Four basic computer functions include data processing—the different forms data takes and associated processing, data storage—short-term and long-term storage, data movement that includes input/output (I/O) or peripheral devices, and control which manages the computer's resources and responds to instructions
- Input/output (I/O) refers to data transfer between the computer and peripheral devices. Data communication refers to transferring data over distances.
Structure
- A computer has four primary components—I/O, CPU,Main memory, and system interconnection
- The CPU handles all the processing and data work for the computer
- Main memory stores all the data used by the program
- System interconnection is the method of communication for data sharing between the CPU,I/O and Main memory.
- Registers and control unit are part of CPU
Multicore Computer Structure
- A Central Processing Unit (CPU) is a portion of the computer that manages and executes instructions.
- A CPU consists of an arithmetic-logic unit (ALU), a control unit, and registers.
- A core is an individual processing unit on the processor chip.
- A processor is a physical piece of silicon holding one or more cores. It is the computer component that functions to interpret and execute instructions
- A multicore processor has multiple cores
Cache Memory
- Cache memory is a set of memory layers between the processor and main memory and is a smaller and faster memory than main memory. Data likely used in the future is moved from the main memory to the cache to improve access speed.
- Greater caching performance can be obtained by using multiple levels of cache, such as L1, L2, and L3, which progressively increase distance from the core
- By having data stored in the cache likely needed more frequently, the processor has faster access to the data
- Data access is sped up by placing likely-to-be used data in cache
IBM System 370 Architecture
- IBM System/370 architecture was released in 1970
- The architecture was designed to support a range of models with varying power and performance capabilities
- Software written for one model could potentially run on versions with different configurations
Computer Evolution and Performance
- Computer evolution is characterized by:
- Mechanical computers (1642-1940).
- Vacuum tubes (1940-1955).
- Transistors (1956-1963).
- Integrated Circuits (1964-1971).
- VLSI-Integration (1971-present).
- Artificial Intelligence (Present and Beyond).
The Zero Generation
- Pascal's machine—used for addition and subtraction
- Analytical Engine—had four main components: store, mill, input, and output; was a precursor to modern computing
Charles Babbage
- Difference Engine 1823—used as a successful automatic calculator
- Analytical Engine 1833—was the forerunner to modern computers, as the first concept of a general-purpose computer
History of Computers – First Generation – Vacuum Tubes
- Vacuum tubes were used in early digital circuits and memory.
- The IAS computer utilized the stored-program concept.
- John von Neumann developed the fundamental design
- The EDVAC design began at the Princeton Institute for Advanced Studies
- It was completed in 1952
The Von Neumann Machine
- The ENIAC program input task was challenging
- Von Neumann's design included a main memory to store both instructions and data, an arithmetic logic unit (ALU) that operates on binary data, a control unit that interprets and executes instructions, and input/output (I/O) equipment
IAS Instruction Cycle
- Fetch cycle - the opcode of the next instruction is loaded into the IR and the address portion is loaded into the MAR
- Instruction is then fetched from IBR, or loaded into the MBR and eventually IBR, IR and MAR
- Execute cycle - Control interprets opcode to execute the instruction
Registers
- Memory buffer register (MBR): stores a word to be written from or read into the memory
- Memory address register (MAR): contains the memory address for the word
- Instruction register (IR): contains the instruction being executed
- Instruction buffer register (IBR): temporarily holds the right-hand instruction
- Program counter (PC): contains the address of the next instruction
- Accumulator (AC): temporarily holds operands and results of ALU operations
Second Generation Computers
- Introduced: more complex arithmetic and logic units and control units, the use of high-level programming languages, the provision of system software
- The ability to Load programs, move data to peripherals and perform common computations
Third Generation Computers – Integrated Circuits
- 1958 saw the invention of the integrated circuit
- Discrete component: single, self-contained transistors
- Manufactured separately and soldered onto boards
- Manufacturing was expensive and complex
- IBM System/360 and DEC PDP-8 were key components of this generation
Fundamental Computer Elements
- Boolean logic function—the function takes an input and returns an output. This function is used as a gate
- Binary storage cell—this cell is used as a memory, in which the activation signal is read from or written to the cell
- Input/output: this is for controlling the flow of information between the computer and the environment
Integrated Circuits
- A computer consists of gates, memory cells, and interconnections
- Gates are constructed with simple digital electronic components
- Exploits the fact that components such as transistors, resistors, and conductors can be fabricated from a semiconductor such as silicon
- Many transistors can be crafted at once on a silicon wafer – making the production of integrated circuits faster and cheaper
Later Generations
- LSI – Large Scale Integration
- VLSI – Very Large Scale Integration
- ULSI – Ultra Large Scale Integration
Semiconductor Memory
- 1970, Fairchild produced first relative capacious memory components
- 1974, price per bit of semiconductor memory dropped below the price per bit of core memory
- Since 1970, semiconductor memory has undergone 13 generations
- Each generation's storage density is four times the previous, alongside the declining cost and access time of the memory
Microprocessors
- The density of elements on processor chips increased, leading to fewer chips for computers
- Intel created the 4004 chip: the world's first general-purpose microprocessor chip
- 1972 Intel created the 8008 – first 8-bit microprocessor
- 1974 Intel created the 8080 – first general-purpose microprocessor
- 1970s processors with varying specifications and advancements (e.g., 4004, 8008, 8080, 8086, 8088)
Evolution of Intel Microprocessors
- This section covers the evolution of Intel microprocessors, details on major design specifications, including features like clock speeds, clock width, and addressable memory.
- Early processors (4004, 8008, 8080, 8086, 8088) had relatively low clock speeds and limited capabilities, gradually improving in later models.
IBM System/360
- Announced in 1964, the IBM System/360 introduced a series of models that are compatible, making it possible for programs written on one of the components in series to transfer over to a different one.
Family Characteristics
- Similar or identical instruction set, increasing speed, increasing number of I/O ports, increasing memory size, increasing cost
PDP-8 Bus Structure
- The PDP-8 bus is described by a diagram and the components of the PDP-8.
Deeply Embedded Systems
- Subsets of embedded systems that feature more complex resource constraint in terms of memory, processor size, the time available, and power consumption
- Microcontrollers are used in place of microprocessors in deeply embedded systems, which lack user interaction, are built for a series of tasks with little user interface. Instructions are burned into the memory (ROM)
ARM
- A processor architecture focused on embedded systems
- Designed for small die size and low power requirements
- Popular in embedded systems
ARM Products
- List, and description of different ARM product categories
Cloud Computing
- NIST defines cloud computing as a model for enabling on-demand network access to shared computing resources, which can be readily provisioned and released with minimal management effort.
- The model utilizes economies of scale in professional network and security management.
- The consumer will only pay for requested storage and services. Cloud providers handle the security aspects.
Cloud Networking
- Network management needed to enable cloud computing
- A network is needed to allow high-performance network linkages between providers and subscribers.
Cloud Storage
- Database storage and databases delivered through cloud servers, enables businesses and consumers utilize data storage solutions that scale to fit their needs.
Alternative Information Technology Architectures
- Diagram illustrating the different architectural orientations of Information Technologies. Shows different types/aspects for how the technology is managed/implemented
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