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Questions and Answers
What is the long-term goal of Vision Zero as adopted by the Swedish Parliament?
Which of the following best describes the traditional view of road accidents?
According to Vision Zero, what should be the focus to reduce road accidents?
What is one of the reasons human errors may occur while driving?
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Which type of error is exemplified by being distracted and swerving while driving?
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What category does forgetting to remain within a school zone fall under?
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In the context of driving, what does the term 'mistake' refer to?
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What is the purpose of Vision Zero’s approach to road safety?
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What is one major risk factor associated with children being hit by vehicles?
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Which behavior contributes the highest percentage to road fatalities?
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What percentage of road fatalities are attributed to alcohol and drug-related crashes?
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What is the benefit of wearing a seatbelt in a vehicle?
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Which of the following is NOT one of the five fatal risk behaviors identified?
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What was developed by Nils Bohlin in 1959 that has become an important safety feature in cars?
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What is the average number of hours teens spend online each week?
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What is a common negative online experience reported by teens?
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What factor is suggested to potentially increase the risk of aggression in individuals?
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At what average age did individuals first report being exposed to violent, degrading internet pornography?
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Which of the following is a consequence of exposure to internet pornography as identified in the content?
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Which statement about the 'third person effect' related to internet pornography is correct?
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What does Objectification Theory suggest regarding women's bodies in the context of sexual behavior?
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Which of the following is an example of sexual objectification in the content provided?
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How does pornography consumption relate to sexual aggression according to the meta-analysis by Wright et al. (2015)?
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What does priming theory suggest about violent media's effect on individuals?
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What role does social learning theory play in understanding aggression in children?
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Which of the following statements best describes the General Aggression Model (GAM)?
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What insight does the content provide regarding sexual behaviors and attitudes among young people?
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Which of the following best describes the effect of violent media in relation to social-cognitive structures?
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What connection is suggested between pornography and women's experiences during sexual acts?
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Study Notes
Large Vehicles & Fatalities
- SUVs are 8 times more likely to cause a fatality than passenger cars when they hit a pedestrian
- Utes are exempt from Luxury Car Tax (LCT)
- The LCT exemption subsidies Utes - cost to taxpayers in 2023 was $250 million
- Luxury sedans valued above $81,000 are taxed.
- An example is a hybrid sedan costing $133,000 and a ute costing $138,000
- Hybrid Sedan costs $11,000 more after tax, while the Ute driver pays no tax
- This means the Ute driver saves $11,000 in tax
- The tax exemption costs the government $11,000
- This is possible because Utes are not classified as luxury cars
- Large vehicles are not classified as luxury cars and are exempt from the LCT
Road Fatalities
- 41% of road deaths are due to speeding
- 24% of serious injuries are due to speeding
- Alcohol and drug driving are responsible for 40% of road fatalities
- Illicit Drug driving is responsible for 24% of road fatalities
Speeding and Driving
- Speeding reduces a driver's field of vision
- Speeding affects a driver's ability to react to hazards in their blind spots or behind the vehicle
- Drivers only focus on the road ahead when speeding
- The faster the car goes the harder the impact and the further the car needs to stop
Seat Belts
- Seat belts reduce risk of death while seated in the front by 40% to 65%.
- Seat belt cameras have issued 11,400 fines since August 2023, 75% for improper use.
- Nils Bohlin invented the three-point seat belt in 1959
- Seat belts are the best safety intervention in vehicles
Distracted Driving
- There are three major types of attention: arousal, capacity and selective
- Arousal is related to excitability, stress, fatigue
- Capacity relates to the amount of information a driver can process
- Selective Attention is the driver's choice of where to focus their attention (road, passenger, map, or mobile device).
Vision Zero:
- The Swedish Parliament adopted Vision Zero in 1997
- Zero people should be killed or seriously injured by road accidents
- The goal is to eliminate all road deaths
- The traditional view was to blame the driver if an accident occurred
- Vision zero focuses on creating systems to minimize mistakes by focusing on the roads, vehicles and the drivers
- Human errors lead to crashes, therefore a system needs to be implemented to minimize human error
Taxonomy of Errors
- Intended Action - violating driving rules consciously, e.g. driving over a .05 BAC (blood alcohol concentration).
- Unintended Actions - error types
- Slip: attentional failure, example: distraction causing the car to swerve
- Lapse: memory failure, example: car still in school zone after leaving the zone.
- Mistake: knowledge and rule based, example: failure to follow a road rule due to confusion.
Understanding Violence
- Viewing violent pornography is associated with men's desire to engage in violent acts
- Hair pulling, slapping, choking and verbal abuse are all signs of IP-related violence.
- IP is a public health concern
- IP can influence people's understanding of what is acceptable behavior and which behaviors are rewarded.
Objectification Theory
- Objectification theory is a social theory that links pornography and violence against women
- IP often portrays women as sexual objects, prioritizes female genitalia
- Objectification Theory highlights the instrumentalization and division of a woman’s body from her personhood
- Suggests viewing a woman as a sexual object rather than a human
- It suggests that women are seen as an object used for sexual gratification rather than having personhood
- Men are often portrayed as powerful and violent while women are subservient.
IP Normalizes Violent and Degrading Acts
- IP normalizes sexual acts that many women find degrading, painful, or violating
- There is a meta-analysis by Wright in 2015 on the link between IP viewing and sexual aggression
- The meta-analysis examined 22 studies across 7 different countries and found a strong link between IP viewing and sexual aggression both in the US and internationally
Theoretical Explanations for the Link between IP and Aggression
- Cognitive: Priming Theory: Violent media primes and activates aggressive thoughts and behaviors
- Social Learning Theory: Children imitate behaviors they witness, including aggression, from media
- Social/ Learning and Behavior
- Schemas: form about aggressive behavior in the world
- Scripts: for solving a social problem using aggression, e.g. fighting to get a toy
- Normative Beliefs: Belief that aggression is acceptable
General Aggresion Model (GAM)
- The immediate situation, e.g being insulted, combined with individual factors, e.g. argument or temperament can create an aggressive response.
- This model includes many influences to understand aggression
- There are many criticisms of social cognitive theory related to its validity and relevance
Criticisms of Social Cognitive Theory
- Critics of the theory argue that the effect size is too small to consider it significant
- Critics argue that the amount of evidence and research supporting this theory makes it difficult to dismiss
- Critics are concerned about the cumulative effect of multiple risk factors and the importance of protective factors.
- The risk of aggression can increase with an accumulation of risks without protective factors
Pornography and Young People
- Teenagers spend an average of 14.4 hours online per week (males 15, females 13.8)
- Negative online experiences included receiving inappropriate and unwanted content like pornography and violent material
- Mainstream IP sites have no age restrictions, allowing access for under 18 year olds
Ways to Reduce Access to IP for Children
- Use browser filters like Google Safe search and parental controls
- Children are often able to find ways to unblock filters and access prohibited content
Exposure to IP in Childhood
- Prevalence rates of intentional and unintentional IP exposure are high:
- Intentional exposure: 7% of U.S children ages 10-17, 59% of Taiwanese students grades 10 - 12
- Unintentional exposure: 19% of U.S children ages 10-12, 60% of Australian girls and 84% of Australian boys ages 16-17
- Children report being exposed to IP for the first time at 11 years old
- U.S. studies indicate that by 15 years old, 100% of males and 80% of females have been exposed to IP featuring violence and degradation
IP Exposure and Consequences
- IP consumption is a credible risk factor for the perpetration of aggression and violence against women
- Sexual violence, abuse and the degradation of women is commonly depicted in mainstream heterosexual IP
- Depictions of violence against women in IP may contribute to real-world aggression and violence against women
- IP is a cultural exception in which violent actions against women are celebrated, despite such behaviors being considered antisocial in society
- The third person effect enables IP's detrimental effects to be negated
- Objectification and dehumanization of women in IP allows viewers to disavow any harm depicted
Early Exposure to IP
- 57% of males and 33% of females reported first exposure to pornography between 12 and 14 years old
- Early exposure is associated with problematic IP views, including
- Increased frequency of viewing
- Positive emotional responses to IP
- Increased sexual impulsivity
- Endorsement of IP related beliefs
- Viewing IP for mood management and emotional avoidance are associated with problematic IP views
- Sexual sensation seeking and moral disengagement are associated with problematic IP views
- Problematic IP views are associated with psychological vulnerabilities, like:
- Increased sexual impulsivity
- Depression
- Dissociation
IP Exposure and Initiating Sexual Behavior
- Early and frequent exposure to pornography is associated with the initiation of sexual behaviors
- Exposure to violence against women in media is linked to:
- Reduced sympathy for female victims of violence
- Increased rape myth acceptance
- Increased support for sexual violence
- More stereotypical gender role attitudes
- Increased negative attitudes toward women
- Increased aggression toward women
NSW Government
- The NSW government was the first to hold a parliamentary inquiry into the impacts of pornography on young people
- The Inquiry looked at the impact of harmful pornography and how to better educate children
- The inquiry acknowledged the need to address domestic violence and sexual assault
- The 2021 National Community Attitudes towards Violence against Women Survey found:
- 25% strongly agreed that a man may not realize a woman does not want to have sex if he is very sexually aroused.
- 21% agreed that a woman who sends her partner a naked picture is partly responsible if he shares it without her consent
School Education
- There are no universally taught IP education programs in Australian schools
- Schools that do address IP often use limited presentations or experts
- Schools should teach about the risks associated with IP viewing
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