Chapter 9

Language Change

• English pronunciation has shifted since the 15th century.

• The pronunciation of ‘k’ in words like ‘knit’ and ‘knife’ was not silent in the 15th century.

• The word 'nice' has undergone a semantic shift, originally meaning 'ignorant' then 'fastidious' and now 'precise.'

• The word 'entertain' originally meant 'to keep occupied,' like holding off invading troops.

• The primary cause of language change is speakers altering their language use through innovation and imitation.

• Language varies across time, physical locations, and social groups.

• The use of ‘wicked’ to mean ‘really good’ is an example of semantic inversion.

• Language variations provide the source for potential change.

• Accents pronouncing post-vocalic ‘r’ are often perceived as rural and uneducated in England and Wales.

• Post-vocalic ‘r’ became a prestigious feature in New York City, with its use increasing.

• A ‘change from above’ is initiated by higher social classes and is consciously associated with prestige.

• The revitalization of central vowel pronunciations on Martha's Vineyard signaled Islander identity and solidarity.

• ‘Changes from below’ are unconscious and occur without conscious awareness.

• During koineization, linguistic features from source dialects are reduced through leveling.

• Koineization results in the formation of a koine, a new dialect emerging from dialect contact.

• The use of ‘was’ with all pronouns in some English dialects is an example of verb form regularization.

• The spread of ‘innit’ in Milton Keynes shows how language features are adopted from other dialects.

• Linguistic innovations spread through speakers who connect different social networks.

• Levelling involves simplifying language by reducing less common variants.

• Linguistic changes spread through communities like a ripple effect.

• Prestigious changes often start in formal speech of the highest social groups.

• Lexical diffusion describes how sound changes spread from word to word in a gradual manner.

• The merger of vowels in ‘beer’ and ‘bear’ among New Zealand English speakers is an example of lexical diffusion.

• Apparent-time studies compare different age groups at one point in time to infer language change.

• Differences in speech between younger and older speakers suggest evidence of ongoing language change.

• Age-grading makes it difficult to distinguish between age-related variations and language change.

• Real-time studies observe language change over a prolonged period by revisiting the same community.

• Middle-class speakers, particularly women, often lead in language change towards prestigious forms.

• Lower-class men often initiate vernacular changes to express solidarity.

• In Ucieda, Spain, women adopting standard Castilian Spanish are motivated to leave village life.

• Young women with strong local networks in Belfast are leading the change toward vernacular norms.

• Clonard women in Belfast adopt vernacular forms from the Ballymacarrett community as a result of admiration.

• Limited interaction with outsiders prevents linguistic change in tightly knit communities.

• Geographic isolation and strong internal communication have kept Icelandic relatively unchanged.

• Mass media can influence language attitudes, but face-to-face interaction is essential for actual change.

• Linguistic entrepreneurs act as bridge figures, spreading innovations between groups.

• The spread of glottal stops in British English shows how change can spread through face-to-face interaction.

• Multilingual interaction among villagers in Kupwar led to grammatical convergence across languages.

• Different vocabulary forms are maintained to preserve group identities.

• The referential and social functions of language restrict the limits of language change.

• ‘Mob’ shifting from slang to standard usage illustrates how words become established through time.

• Imitation quickens language change by facilitating the spread of innovations.

• Simplification involves adopting simpler forms rather than complex ones during language change.

• The use of ‘they was’ instead of ‘they were’ in dialects is an example of simplification through regularization.

• In koineization, social factors can override linguistic simplification when features from a prestigious group are favored.

• Changes originating in higher social classes and spreading downward are known as downward diffusion.

• Vernacular changes often begin in casual speech of lower social classes.

• Lexical diffusion explains that sound changes spread one by one across different words.

• Age-grading refers to variations in language use associated with speaker's age.

• Women might lead changes toward standard forms because they associate it with social aspirations.

• Language change may be influenced by men or occur differently in communities where women's roles are restricted.

• Women with strong networks similar to men's may adopt vernacular forms.

• Linguistic stockbrokers transfer innovations between groups, facilitating language change.

• Factors slowing down language change include geographic isolation, strong community identity, and limited interaction with outsiders.### Language Change and Contact

• Frequent contact with outsiders can accelerate language change.

• Marginal individuals play a significant role in spreading language change as they act as bridges between groups.

• In Kupwar, multilingualism led to grammar convergence, but vocabularies remained distinct to maintain cultural identity.

• The need for mutual understanding constrains the speed of linguistic change between groups.

• Both referential and social functions of language influence how language changes.

Linguistic Variation and Social Factors

• Covert prestige refers to the hidden positive value of non-standard language forms within a group.

• The centralization of vowels among Martha's Vineyard residents served as a marker of local identity against outsiders.

• Dialects with simpler grammar structures are more likely to prevail when speakers from complex and simple dialects come into contact.

• Isolation in remote mountain villages helps preserve older dialects, as it slows down language change.

• Rhotic accents pronounce the 'r' sound after vowels.

• Some words resist sound changes, retaining older pronunciations due to linguistic conservatism.

• Glottal stops are more prevalent in urban areas closer to London, suggesting the impact of proximity on language change.

• Increasing use of standard forms among younger speakers suggests a shift towards standard language norms.

• Non-standard forms can have value within certain groups due to the concept of covert prestige.

• Media exposure can influence language change, but interaction and social networks are crucial in solidifying those changes.

• Women in certain communities may adopt vernacular forms, potentially contradicting typical patterns where women usually adopt prestige forms.

• Languages from different families can converge structurally, which is unusual and demonstrated in the linguistic situation of Kupwar.

• Societies with men having more access to education can influence men to adopt standard language forms.

• Speech accommodation, where speakers adjust their language during interaction , facilitates the adoption of new forms.

• Geographic separation and limited interaction are key factors in the development of dialects.

• Merging social and work networks among women can lead to the adoption of vernacular forms typically used by men.

• S-shaped curves demonstrate that language change accelerates and then slows down over time.

• Centralization of vowels can symbolize resistance to external influences within a community.

• Women's aspirations for social mobility can drive them to adopt standard language forms, even if they are resistant towards traditional community values.

• Words that have disappeared or changed meaning highlight the dynamism of language change.

• Comparing speech of different age groups may not accurately reflect language change, as younger speakers' usage could reflect temporary trends.

• Spread of an innovation from younger to older speakers signifies language change in progress.

• Consistent usage patterns across generations suggest linguistic stability.

• Linguistic innovations require repeated exposure through multiple interactions to spread effectively.

• Linguistic conservatism involves resistance to language change, preserving traditional forms.

• Strict adherence to language policies may not prevent language change influenced by social factors.

• Simplification in language contact situations often leads to the elimination of less common or marked language forms.

• Language change spreading from one style to another within a speaker's repertoire is known as internal diffusion.

• Women's aspirations for social mobility can drive them to adopt standard forms.

• Proximity to the origin of a linguistic change influences adoption speed, with areas closer to the origin adopting changes faster.

• Age-graded variation, where usage changes with age, can be typical and not necessarily indicate permanent change.

• Unpredictable social factors are a challenge for predicting which linguistic variations will become permanent changes.

Explore the fascinating shifts in English pronunciation and semantics from the 15th century to present day. This quiz covers various aspects of language change, including regional variations, semantic shifts, and the impact of social classes on language. Test your knowledge on how and why languages evolve over time.