Chapter 9

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Questions and Answers

What change in pronunciation is highlighted as having occurred since the 15th century?

The loss of distinction between long and short vowels

The silent 'e' at the end of words like 'name' and 'come' (correct)

The silent 'k' in words like 'knit' and 'knife'

The variation of stress on different syllables in words

The term used to describe the shift in meaning of the word 'nice' over time is:

Semantic shift (correct)

Phonetic alteration

Syntactic variation

Lexical change

During Shakespeare's era, the word 'entertain' primarily referred to which of the following?

To keep occupied or hold off (correct)

To provide hospitality

To amuse an audience

To consider or contemplate

Which of these factors is identified as the primary cause of language change?

Speaker innovation and imitation Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'language variation' encompass?

Variations arising from time, geography, and social contexts Signup and view all the answers

The phrase 'wicked' being used to mean 'really good' is an example of what linguistic phenomenon?

Semantic inversion Signup and view all the answers

In the context of language change, what does the statement 'variation has its origins in change' imply?

Variation can give rise to new language changes Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a plausible cause of language decay?

Neglect of regional dialects Signup and view all the answers

What do apparent-time studies infer from differences in speech between age groups?

There is evidence of language change in progress. Signup and view all the answers

In apparent-time studies, what does the use of new forms by younger speakers typically indicate?

Language change in progress. Signup and view all the answers

When is it particularly challenging to differentiate between age-grading and language change?

When older speakers use forms not used by younger speakers. Signup and view all the answers

What defines a 'real-time' study in sociolinguistics?

A longitudinal study examining changes over an extended period. Signup and view all the answers

What methodological approach is used when researchers return to a community after several years?

Real-time methodology. Signup and view all the answers

Which social group is noted for introducing prestige linguistic changes?

Middle class, especially women. Signup and view all the answers

Which demographic is credited with frequently introducing vernacular changes?

Lower-class men seeking social solidarity. Signup and view all the answers

In Ucieda, Spain, who is primarily leading the shift towards standard Castilian Spanish?

Women aspiring to change their lifestyle. Signup and view all the answers

Which group is impacting the adoption of vernacular norms in Belfast communities?

Young women with prominent local social networks. Signup and view all the answers

What keeps tightly knit communities from linguistic change?

Limited interaction with outsiders. Signup and view all the answers

What accounts for Icelandic's linguistic stability over time?

Geographic isolation combined with thorough internal communication. Signup and view all the answers

What do existing variations in language use signify in the context of language change?

They serve as the source for potential language change. Signup and view all the answers

How does mass media influence language change according to sociolinguistic studies?

It shapes attitudes, but requires interaction for real change. Signup and view all the answers

What role do 'linguistic entrepreneurs' play in language change?

They serve as connectors that facilitate changes between different language user groups. Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes accents that pronounce post-vocalic 'r' in many regions of England and Wales?

They are perceived as rural and uneducated. Signup and view all the answers

What does the spread of glottal stop pronunciation in British English illustrate?

Linguistic change through face-to-face interactions resulting in geographic diffusion. Signup and view all the answers

In which American city did the use of post-vocalic 'r' gain prestige?

New York Signup and view all the answers

What does a 'change from above' indicate in sociolinguistics?

Conscious changes originating in higher social classes. Signup and view all the answers

How does the centralization of vowel pronunciations in Martha's Vineyard reflect local identity?

It reinforces a strong Vineyarder identity and solidarity. Signup and view all the answers

What are changes that occur below the level of conscious awareness called?

Changes from below. Signup and view all the answers

What effect does leveling typically have during koineization?

It reduces complexity in linguistic forms. Signup and view all the answers

What type of new variety results from the process of koineization?

Koine. Signup and view all the answers

The use of 'was' with all pronouns in some English dialects exemplifies which linguistic phenomenon?

Regularization of verb forms. Signup and view all the answers

What feature of the East London Cockney dialect spread to Milton Keynes?

'Innit' as a tag question. Signup and view all the answers

How do innovations in language typically spread throughout a community?

Through individual speakers connecting various social networks. Signup and view all the answers

What does 'levelling' mean in relation to language change?

Removal of marked variants for simplification. Signup and view all the answers

Which metaphor represents the spread of linguistic changes through social groups?

A wave rippling outward. Signup and view all the answers

Where do prestigious language changes typically originate?

Formal speech in higher social classes. Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes a linguistic innovation that is first adopted by younger speakers before older speakers?

Change in progress Signup and view all the answers

Which situation is NOT an indicator that a linguistic change is actively occurring?

Consistent usage patterns across generations Signup and view all the answers

What is essential for linguistic innovations to spread effectively across a community?

Innovations require repeated exposure Signup and view all the answers

What does 'linguistic conservatism' primarily involve?

Resistance to language change Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is least likely to influence language change?

Strict adherence to language policies Signup and view all the answers

In language contact situations, simplification typically results in what effect?

Elimination of redundant forms Signup and view all the answers

When language change occurs from one style to another within a speaker's language use, this is referred to as?

Internal diffusion Signup and view all the answers

What drives the shift toward the use of standard Castilian Spanish among women in Ucieda?

Desire for social mobility Signup and view all the answers

What does the absence of glottal stops in areas distant from London imply about language change?

Proximity impacts the rate of change adoption Signup and view all the answers

The situation where young speakers discontinue a linguistic innovation as they age exemplifies what phenomenon?

Age-graded variation without change Signup and view all the answers

What primary reason leads to the maintenance of vocabulary differences in communities despite grammatical convergence?

Villagers wish to preserve distinct group identities Signup and view all the answers

Which two functions of language limit the extent of language change?

Referential and social functions Signup and view all the answers

What linguistic phenomenon is illustrated by the word 'mob' shifting from slang to standard usage?

The evolution of vocabulary through cultural shifts Signup and view all the answers

Imitation contributes to language change in what way?

It promotes the spread of new linguistic forms Signup and view all the answers

Which linguistic process means adopting simpler forms rather than more complex ones?

Simplification Signup and view all the answers

The replacement of 'they were' with 'they was' in certain dialects represents which linguistic change?

Regularization through simplification Signup and view all the answers

In the context of koineization, what can override linguistic simplification?

Social factors related to prestige groups Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for linguistic changes that start in a high-status group and circulate downwards?

Downward diffusion Signup and view all the answers

Where do vernacular changes typically originate?

In casual speech among lower social groups Signup and view all the answers

What does the concept of lexical diffusion refer to in language change?

The gradual spread of sound changes one word at a time Signup and view all the answers

What does age-grading refer to in linguistic studies?

Variations in language shaped by speaker age Signup and view all the answers

Why might women lead the adoption of standard language forms in certain contexts?

Standard forms align with social aspirations Signup and view all the answers

In communities where women have limited roles, how does language change typically manifest?

Men contribute or alter the dynamics of change Signup and view all the answers

When do women adopt vernacular language forms more frequently?

When their networks are comparable to men's Signup and view all the answers

What is the impact of isolation on dialects in remote mountain villages?

It contributes to the conservation of older dialects Signup and view all the answers

What describes the relationship between social identity and language change?

Both social and referential functions interact to influence language change Signup and view all the answers

Which outcome is most likely when complex dialects come into contact with simpler dialects?

The simpler forms tend to prevail Signup and view all the answers

How does 'covert prestige' function within a community?

Represents the hidden positive evaluation of non-standard forms Signup and view all the answers

What does the centralization of vowels among certain communities signify?

A resistance to outside cultural pressures Signup and view all the answers

How is the spread of glottal stops in proximity to London best explained?

Change propagates more readily through geographic proximity Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of children using forms not utilized by older speakers?

It confirms that a linguistic change is occurring Signup and view all the answers

Which phenomenon involves a shift of meaning in words like 'sick' to imply 'great'?

Semantic amelioration Signup and view all the answers

In the wave model of language change, what does the center represent?

The origin point of linguistic innovation Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of mutual unintelligibility in linguistic change?

It limits the speed at which languages can change Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect characterizes a vernacular change exemplified by 'ain't'?

A vernacular change spreading into broader usage Signup and view all the answers

How do grammatical structures behave in multilingual settings like Kupwar?

Grammatical structures may converge while vocabularies remain distinct Signup and view all the answers

What is indicated by the pattern of changing language use across age demographics?

Only older speakers retain traditional forms actively Signup and view all the answers

Which assertion accurately reflects dialect contact outcomes?

Simpler dialects often prevail due to the simplification process Signup and view all the answers

What is the main reason for Iceland's linguistic stability?

Regular assemblies fostering unity Signup and view all the answers

Which region has Scottish Gaelic best preserved due to isolation?

The Western Isles Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'ephemeral' suggest in relation to language change?

Short-lived Signup and view all the answers

An increase in the use of standard forms among young speakers indicates what trend?

A shift toward standard norms Signup and view all the answers

What does the concept of 'covert prestige' illustrate about language forms?

Non-standard forms can hold value within some groups Signup and view all the answers

How does media influence language change according to recent analyses?

Raising awareness but not necessarily changing speech without interaction Signup and view all the answers

What is unusual about the Clonard women's adoption of vernacular forms?

Women usually lead changes toward prestige forms Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes Kupwar's linguistic situation?

Languages from different families have converged structurally Signup and view all the answers

What factor contributes to the resistance of certain words to sound change?

Linguistic conservatism Signup and view all the answers

What does the concept of 'speech accommodation' imply for language change?

Adjusting speech fosters adoption of new forms Signup and view all the answers

What key factor influences the formation of dialects within a language?

Geographic separation and limited interaction Signup and view all the answers

What effect can merging social and work networks among women have on language?

Adoption of vernacular forms traditionally associated with men Signup and view all the answers

What does S-shaped curves in language change indicate?

The rate of change accelerates and then slows down over time Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Language Change

English pronunciation has shifted since the 15th century.
The pronunciation of ‘k’ in words like ‘knit’ and ‘knife’ was not silent in the 15th century.
The word 'nice' has undergone a semantic shift, originally meaning 'ignorant' then 'fastidious' and now 'precise.'
The word 'entertain' originally meant 'to keep occupied,' like holding off invading troops.
The primary cause of language change is speakers altering their language use through innovation and imitation.
Language varies across time, physical locations, and social groups.
The use of ‘wicked’ to mean ‘really good’ is an example of semantic inversion.
Language variations provide the source for potential change.
Accents pronouncing post-vocalic ‘r’ are often perceived as rural and uneducated in England and Wales.
Post-vocalic ‘r’ became a prestigious feature in New York City, with its use increasing.
A ‘change from above’ is initiated by higher social classes and is consciously associated with prestige.
The revitalization of central vowel pronunciations on Martha's Vineyard signaled Islander identity and solidarity.
‘Changes from below’ are unconscious and occur without conscious awareness.
During koineization, linguistic features from source dialects are reduced through leveling.
Koineization results in the formation of a koine, a new dialect emerging from dialect contact.
The use of ‘was’ with all pronouns in some English dialects is an example of verb form regularization.
The spread of ‘innit’ in Milton Keynes shows how language features are adopted from other dialects.
Linguistic innovations spread through speakers who connect different social networks.
Levelling involves simplifying language by reducing less common variants.
Linguistic changes spread through communities like a ripple effect.
Prestigious changes often start in formal speech of the highest social groups.
Lexical diffusion describes how sound changes spread from word to word in a gradual manner.
The merger of vowels in ‘beer’ and ‘bear’ among New Zealand English speakers is an example of lexical diffusion.
Apparent-time studies compare different age groups at one point in time to infer language change.
Differences in speech between younger and older speakers suggest evidence of ongoing language change.
Age-grading makes it difficult to distinguish between age-related variations and language change.
Real-time studies observe language change over a prolonged period by revisiting the same community.
Middle-class speakers, particularly women, often lead in language change towards prestigious forms.
Lower-class men often initiate vernacular changes to express solidarity.
In Ucieda, Spain, women adopting standard Castilian Spanish are motivated to leave village life.
Young women with strong local networks in Belfast are leading the change toward vernacular norms.
Clonard women in Belfast adopt vernacular forms from the Ballymacarrett community as a result of admiration.
Limited interaction with outsiders prevents linguistic change in tightly knit communities.
Geographic isolation and strong internal communication have kept Icelandic relatively unchanged.
Mass media can influence language attitudes, but face-to-face interaction is essential for actual change.
Linguistic entrepreneurs act as bridge figures, spreading innovations between groups.
The spread of glottal stops in British English shows how change can spread through face-to-face interaction.
Multilingual interaction among villagers in Kupwar led to grammatical convergence across languages.
Different vocabulary forms are maintained to preserve group identities.
The referential and social functions of language restrict the limits of language change.
‘Mob’ shifting from slang to standard usage illustrates how words become established through time.
Imitation quickens language change by facilitating the spread of innovations.
Simplification involves adopting simpler forms rather than complex ones during language change.
The use of ‘they was’ instead of ‘they were’ in dialects is an example of simplification through regularization.
In koineization, social factors can override linguistic simplification when features from a prestigious group are favored.
Changes originating in higher social classes and spreading downward are known as downward diffusion.
Vernacular changes often begin in casual speech of lower social classes.
Lexical diffusion explains that sound changes spread one by one across different words.
Age-grading refers to variations in language use associated with speaker's age.
Women might lead changes toward standard forms because they associate it with social aspirations.
Language change may be influenced by men or occur differently in communities where women's roles are restricted.
Women with strong networks similar to men's may adopt vernacular forms.
Linguistic stockbrokers transfer innovations between groups, facilitating language change.
Factors slowing down language change include geographic isolation, strong community identity, and limited interaction with outsiders.### Language Change and Contact
Frequent contact with outsiders can accelerate language change.
Marginal individuals play a significant role in spreading language change as they act as bridges between groups.
In Kupwar, multilingualism led to grammar convergence, but vocabularies remained distinct to maintain cultural identity.
The need for mutual understanding constrains the speed of linguistic change between groups.
Both referential and social functions of language influence how language changes.

Covert prestige refers to the hidden positive value of non-standard language forms within a group.
The centralization of vowels among Martha's Vineyard residents served as a marker of local identity against outsiders.
Dialects with simpler grammar structures are more likely to prevail when speakers from complex and simple dialects come into contact.
Isolation in remote mountain villages helps preserve older dialects, as it slows down language change.
Rhotic accents pronounce the 'r' sound after vowels.
Some words resist sound changes, retaining older pronunciations due to linguistic conservatism.
Glottal stops are more prevalent in urban areas closer to London, suggesting the impact of proximity on language change.
Increasing use of standard forms among younger speakers suggests a shift towards standard language norms.
Non-standard forms can have value within certain groups due to the concept of covert prestige.
Media exposure can influence language change, but interaction and social networks are crucial in solidifying those changes.
Women in certain communities may adopt vernacular forms, potentially contradicting typical patterns where women usually adopt prestige forms.
Languages from different families can converge structurally, which is unusual and demonstrated in the linguistic situation of Kupwar.
Societies with men having more access to education can influence men to adopt standard language forms.
Speech accommodation, where speakers adjust their language during interaction , facilitates the adoption of new forms.
Geographic separation and limited interaction are key factors in the development of dialects.
Merging social and work networks among women can lead to the adoption of vernacular forms typically used by men.
S-shaped curves demonstrate that language change accelerates and then slows down over time.
Centralization of vowels can symbolize resistance to external influences within a community.
Women's aspirations for social mobility can drive them to adopt standard language forms, even if they are resistant towards traditional community values.
Words that have disappeared or changed meaning highlight the dynamism of language change.
Comparing speech of different age groups may not accurately reflect language change, as younger speakers' usage could reflect temporary trends.
Spread of an innovation from younger to older speakers signifies language change in progress.
Consistent usage patterns across generations suggest linguistic stability.
Linguistic innovations require repeated exposure through multiple interactions to spread effectively.
Linguistic conservatism involves resistance to language change, preserving traditional forms.
Strict adherence to language policies may not prevent language change influenced by social factors.
Simplification in language contact situations often leads to the elimination of less common or marked language forms.
Language change spreading from one style to another within a speaker's repertoire is known as internal diffusion.
Women's aspirations for social mobility can drive them to adopt standard forms.
Proximity to the origin of a linguistic change influences adoption speed, with areas closer to the origin adopting changes faster.
Age-graded variation, where usage changes with age, can be typical and not necessarily indicate permanent change.
Unpredictable social factors are a challenge for predicting which linguistic variations will become permanent changes.

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Explore the fascinating shifts in English pronunciation and semantics from the 15th century to present day. This quiz covers various aspects of language change, including regional variations, semantic shifts, and the impact of social classes on language. Test your knowledge on how and why languages evolve over time.