Language and Social Class Concepts

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Questions and Answers

What characterizes restricted codes in Bernstein's linguistic codes?

Abstract language suited for academic discourse.

Use of complex vocabulary and long explanations.

Limited vocabulary and short responses. (correct)

Frequent code-switching between languages.

Which term refers to the gradual changes in sound where distinct sounds become similar?

Dialect Variation

Koinenization

Diffusion (correct)

Semantic Shift

What does semantic shift refer to?

Adapting language based on social context.

Shifts in pronunciation of words.

Using language that restricts communication.

Changes in the meaning of a word over time. (correct)

What is a characteristic of a pidgin language?

It is a simplified, adapted language used in specific contexts. Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of language change does Koinenization relate to?

Emerging language varieties from contact. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following examples is a pidgin language?

Tok Pisin Signup and view all the answers

What is indicated by the term 'diachronic change' in linguistics?

Changes in language that occur over time. Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes a creole language from a pidgin language?

A creole is a more complex language used as a primary means of communication. Signup and view all the answers

Which of these best describes semantic derogation?

Negative associations developing towards certain terms. Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential consequence of using restricted codes, as controversially claimed?

Limitations on cognitive abilities. Signup and view all the answers

Which loanword originates from Hindi?

Veranda Signup and view all the answers

Which factor influences linguistic diffusion according to the Gravity Model?

Distance between settlements. Signup and view all the answers

In cardinal direction terminology, what do 'north' and 'south' refer to?

Fixed orientations on a compass. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of a creole language?

Tok Pisin Signup and view all the answers

What are the two varieties of Hindi mentioned?

High and low. Signup and view all the answers

What feature is common among Arabic varieties?

Classic and colloquial varieties. Signup and view all the answers

What does the Vitality Model assess in terms of language health?

Status, institutional support, and demography Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following factors contributes to the suppression of less prestigious languages?

The dominance of more prestigious languages Signup and view all the answers

Which two languages are mentioned specifically as Indigenous languages in the context of revitalization efforts?

Cree and Haida Signup and view all the answers

What role does educational support play in the survival of Indigenous languages?

It is crucial for the success of both Indigenous languages and students Signup and view all the answers

What is often stigmatized when discussing the use of vernacular languages?

Their representation in mainstream education Signup and view all the answers

What is a notable impact of colonialism on language according to the provided information?

It caused displacement of certain language varieties. Signup and view all the answers

Which regions experienced language variations due to colonization as mentioned in the information?

South Africa, Australia, and the Caribbean Signup and view all the answers

What facilitated the spread of English in the Caribbean region?

The slave trade involving pidgin and creole varieties Signup and view all the answers

How did linguistic interactions occur according to the content?

Via exchanges of words, sounds, and structures Signup and view all the answers

What defines a 'lingua franca' as explained in the text?

A language used for communication between groups without a shared native language Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following languages influenced South African English as per the provided content?

Dutch and English Signup and view all the answers

In what way did aboriginal languages influence English in Australia and New Zealand?

They enhanced the vocabulary and pronunciation of English varieties. Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of English as a lingua franca in a global context?

It serves as a communication tool across diverse regions. Signup and view all the answers

What is the main purpose of the IRE model in classroom interactions?

To facilitate structured communication between teachers and students. Signup and view all the answers

What challenge is associated with using less common languages in educational settings?

Lack of sufficient educational texts and resources. Signup and view all the answers

How can cultural misunderstandings impact education?

They may lead to biased educational assessments. Signup and view all the answers

What was a significant resistance faced in efforts to use Ute language in education?

Traditional cultural resistance to written forms. Signup and view all the answers

What was the AAE debate primarily focused on in the context of education?

Incorporating African American English into formal education. Signup and view all the answers

Why is understanding cultural backgrounds important in educational settings?

It allows for accurate interpretation of student responses. Signup and view all the answers

What innovative solution did students develop to adapt to educational challenges?

Developing a written form for Ute language. Signup and view all the answers

What was the impact of Shirley Brice Heath's research in education?

It generated mixed reactions from various stakeholders. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Introduced the concepts of elaborated codes (middle class) and restricted codes (working class).
Restricted codes are characterized by limited vocabulary, short responses, and reliance on context.
He controversially suggested that restricted codes could limit cognitive abilities, reflecting linguistic determinism or linguistic relativity. This view was later retracted.
However, the work highlights potential differences in language use across social groups.

Code Switching/Mixing

Refers to changing language varieties or styles based on context.
May involve switching entirely between languages during a conversation.

Language Change

Semantic Shift: change in a word's meaning over time. Example: "gay" originally meant "happy."
Semantic Derogation: shift resulting in a more negative association, often observed in negative terms towards women and curse words.
Diffusion: gradual changes in sound, where distinct sounds become similar or identical. Example: vowels "bear" and "beer" merging in New Zealand English.

Case Studies

Martha’s Vineyard (Labov): studied how linguistic change can be influenced by social factors.
Peter Trudgill: studied language change in Norwich, England, observing vowel merging and "th-fronting" from 1968 to 1983.

Mass Migration and Language

Linguistic patterns indicate historical patterns of migration and cultural exchange.
Language interactions involve exchanging words, sounds, and structures.
One language variety can displace others.

Colonialism and Language Spread

Colonialism significantly influenced the spread of English globally.
Impact of Colonialism
- English varieties were influenced by settlers from different regions of England (Crystal, 2003).
- The slave trade facilitated the spread of English through pidgin and creole varieties in the Caribbean.
- English variations were influenced by aboriginal languages and British prisoners in Australia and New Zealand (Crystal, 2003).
- Dutch and English colonists shaped South African English, impacted by apartheid dynamics.
- English spread widely in India and South Asia, becoming embedded in education and governance.

Language Patterns and Lingua Francas

Lingua Franca: a language used for communication between groups who do not share a native language (Meyerhoff, 2011).
English serves as a global lingua franca.
Examples:
- Amazon: Tukano people use a lingua franca among diverse language groups along the Vaupes River.
- Papua New Guinea: Tok Pisin, a pidgin language, is used among over 800 language groups.

Global English

Two varieties: High (formal) and Low (everyday use).
Examples:
- Arabic: Classical vs. colloquial varieties.
- Japanese: Casual, formal, and honorific (keigo) speech.

Loanwords from Colonial Languages

Aboriginal loan words: Examples include "kangaroo".
Hindi loan words: Examples include "veranda", "dinghy", "jungle", "pyjama", "thug", and "cushy".

Pidgins and Creoles

Pidgin: a simplified, adapted language used in specific contexts, not as a first language.
Creole: a more complex language used as a first language, often arising from pidgins.
Examples of Pidgins:
- Russenorsk: a Norwegian and Russian hybrid used by sailors.
- Français tiraillou: used in French-speaking military contexts in Africa.
- Fanagalo: a Zulu-based language used in South African mines.

Language Diffusion and the Gravity Model

The Gravity Model (Trudgill, 1974): Linguistic influence spreads from larger urban centers to smaller ones, similar to gravitational pull.
Factors:
- Size and population density.
- Distance between settlements.
- Connections via infrastructure and social/economic factors.

Protection of Indigenous Languages

Constitutional support for linguistic heritage (Meyerhoff, 2011).
Use of vernacular languages is often stigmatized.
Prestige of certain languages historically influences their prominence in education.

Suppression of Less Prestigious Languages

Language suppression: Less prestigious languages are often suppressed in favor of dominant, more prestigious varieties.
Lack of educational support for less prestigious languages hinders their survival.
Language representation in education is crucial for both the success of languages and students.

Multilingual Nations: Canada

Official Languages: English and French.
Indigenous Languages: Cree and Haida; efforts towards revitalization.
IRE Model (Initiation-Response-Evaluation): Prominent classroom interaction model.
- Teacher requests information (initiation).
- Student responds.
- Teacher evaluates and decides next steps.

Practical Challenges in Multilingual Education

Criticisms on the feasibility of using multiple languages for education.
Providing adequate resources for less common languages can be challenging.

Case Studies: Bridging Home and Classroom

Ute Language: Efforts to use Ute in educational settings faced traditional cultural resistance to written forms.
- Students innovatively created a written form, enabling cultural adaptation.

Ebonics Debate

Efforts in the 1990s to incorporate African American English (AAE) into formal education were controversial.
Mixed reactions from students, teachers, politicians, and the public.

Cultural Advantages and Disadvantages

Different Cultural Expectations: Cultural misunderstandings can lead to biased educational assessments.
Contextual Differences: Silence or engagement in classrooms may be misinterpreted based on cultural norms.

Shirley Brice Heath’s Research

Highlights the importance of understanding cultural backgrounds for accurate interpretation of student responses.

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Description

Explore Bernstein's theories on language use among different social classes, focusing on elaborated and restricted codes. The quiz also covers code-switching and semantic changes in language over time. Test your understanding of how language reflects social dynamics.