Bernstein's Language Codes and Education
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Questions and Answers

What characterizes elaborated codes in language usage?

  • Simple vocabulary and concrete ideas
  • Predictable meanings and straightforward communication
  • Context-dependent and collective expressions
  • Complex vocabulary and abstract ideas (correct)

How do restricted codes typically function in communication?

  • They convey direct meanings and are context dependent. (correct)
  • They require detailed explanations for clarity.
  • They are often used by the middle class and emphasize individual expression.
  • They are designed for ambiguous and abstract discussions.

What educational advantage do middle-class children typically have?

  • They naturally learn elaborated codes faster. (correct)
  • They are primarily taught using direct definitions.
  • They do not need to engage with the elaborated code.
  • They are more likely to understand restricted codes.

Which statement accurately reflects Bernstein's findings about working-class students?

<p>They face challenges learning the elaborated code before acquiring new knowledge. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do elaborated codes play within the educational system?

<p>They support abstract thinking and higher-level understanding. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which characteristic distinguishes restricted codes from elaborated codes?

<p>Restricted codes rely on already understood meanings. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why might working-class speech clash with middle-class teachers?

<p>Middle-class teachers rely on elaborated codes that differ from restricted codes. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements is true regarding language codes in education?

<p>Elaborated codes play a crucial role in educational success. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the characteristics of ingratiators in school subcultures?

<p>They try to earn the favour of teachers. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did working-class boys in Mac an Ghaill's study react to their expectation of leaving school?

<p>They developed outdated views of masculinity. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What term describes the group of middle-class students who aspires to higher education but mocks school values?

<p>Real Englishmen (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of racism includes subtle cultural biases in the curriculum?

<p>Cultural racism (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How many permanent exclusions from UK schools occur each year, according to Hughes and Church?

<p>8,000 (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which program is designed to serve the poorest pre-school children in the UK?

<p>Sure Start programmes (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the impact of engaging students through extended schools, according to Wilkin et al.?

<p>Improvement in behaviour (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary demographic affected by unauthorised absence from school in the UK?

<p>Working-class students (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'crisis of masculinity' refer to in Mac an Ghaill's study?

<p>Job scarcity leading to outdated masculine views (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which group focuses on developing practical skills for the changing labour market?

<p>New enterprisers (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How is overt racism experienced by minority ethnic groups in schools?

<p>As negative peer interactions (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of UK teachers are drawn from ethnic minorities, according to Ross?

<p>5% (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are Education Action Zones aimed at improving?

<p>Educational services (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did Mirza identify about Supplementary Schools in her study?

<p>They reflect parent dissatisfaction with schools. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following languages is NOT mentioned as being used in Mauritian education?

<p>Spanish (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What advantage do middle-class students have in educational settings according to the content?

<p>Fluency in the language of education (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the concept of 'cultural deprivation' imply regarding working-class students?

<p>They lack full integration into the education system. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is NOT mentioned as contributing to the underachievement of working-class students?

<p>School funding (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In which way do middle-class women have an advantage regarding school decision-making?

<p>Greater involvement in decision-making processes (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does labeling theory mainly explore?

<p>How teachers classify and stereotype students (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What phenomenon describes how teacher expectations can influence student performance?

<p>Self-fulfilling prophecies (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did MacDonald and Marsh (2005) conclude about the concept of an underclass?

<p>There is no evidence of a distinct underclass culture. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT considered an in-school factor influencing student achievement?

<p>Parental support (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What evidence suggests that parental attitudes may not hinder working-class students' education?

<p>Many working-class parents actively engage in their children's education. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do social class and ethnicity relate to student labeling according to the content?

<p>They influence perceptions and classifications of students. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term ‘cultural capital’ refer to in the context of education?

<p>The student’s experience and skills acquired from home (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What factors shape students' self-perceptions according to labelling theory?

<p>Teacher opinions and peer interactions (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one way working-class students might overcome disadvantages in the classroom?

<p>By employing enough cultural capital (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What response is characterized by African-Caribbean boys who accepted the white cultural values of the school?

<p>Passive acceptors (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which group of Asian girls is known to adopt an 'Us and Them' attitude, often opposing the school culture?

<p>The Gang (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which subcultural response involves individuals who distance themselves from their own cultural background while succeeding academically?

<p>The Rebels (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main assertion of the Marxist perspective regarding educational disadvantages?

<p>Class is the primary source of educational disadvantage. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which ethnic group achieves higher-than-average educational qualifications in the UK?

<p>Asians and Indians (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is noted about gender differences in educational achievement among lower-class individuals?

<p>Boys and girls have similar performance levels. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which group of Asian girls was perceived as 'ideal pupils' engaged in academic success?

<p>The Survivors (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What factors are noted as having an interplay affecting educational achievement?

<p>Social class, gender, and ethnicity (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which group of girls focused on promoting positive relations while being aware of racism in schools?

<p>The Faith girls (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What has shifted in the research focus regarding female educational performance over the past 50 years?

<p>Explaining how girls cope with school disadvantages (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which dimension of inequality is argued to be the most significant in terms of disparity in educational achievement?

<p>Class (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do passive resistors maintain their relationship with the school environment?

<p>Through minor acts of deviance (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement reflects the conclusion of Gillborn and Mirza regarding dimensions of inequality?

<p>Class is the most significant in educational achievement. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does religion play for Faith girls in the context of education according to their identity development?

<p>It helps in connecting positively with education. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the concept of 'feminisation of schooling' refer to?

<p>Curricula and assessment methods favoring female ways of learning (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of girls, according to Lees (1993), valued education as enjoyable and worthwhile?

<p>Pro-education girls (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which group of boys is characterized as generally conformist and pro-school?

<p>Boffin boys (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What factor is seen as contributing to male underachievement according to New Right educational concerns?

<p>Educational reforms that benefit girls (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which behaviour is typically viewed as normal for boys in the classroom setting?

<p>Loud and boisterous activity (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the attitude of anti-education girls?

<p>They view school as a burden on their path to adulthood (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do teacher expectations vary between boys and girls in the classroom?

<p>Boys may have their disruptive behavior normalized (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What has been identified as a consequence of the lack of male role models in primary schools?

<p>Challenges for boys in relating to school culture (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why has there been a shift in parental attitudes towards female education?

<p>A significant rise in women's participation in the labor force (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What typical behavior may lead to the development of ‘anti-pupil’ subcultures in boys?

<p>Punishment for natural masculine behavior (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characteristic is associated with New Wave girls according to Blackman (1995)?

<p>Increased confidence to challenge patriarchal ideas (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common theme in boys' attitudes towards education, as presented in the content?

<p>Desire for qualifications without valuing the educational process (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of subjects are boys perceived to be disadvantaged by in the educational system?

<p>Courses with a focus on softer, less rigorous content (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What has been a significant shift in the opportunities available to teenage girls regarding femininity?

<p>A broader range of career opportunities that reflect different femininities. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What do Francis and Skelton identify as a common explanation for female educational achievement?

<p>The focus on female-friendly teaching practices. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do societal perceptions of male and female educational roles influence parental views?

<p>Parents alter their perceptions of children's future adult roles based on gender. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What criticism do some scholars have regarding the focus on female achievement?

<p>It assumes all girls perform better than boys. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Marxists argue that educational achievement differences are primarily influenced by what factor?

<p>Social class divisions. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of educational achievement do Jones and Myhill (2004) link to male identities?

<p>Masculine traits that emphasize physicality, affecting academic success. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What trend has been observed concerning educational underachievement among different genders?

<p>Working-class and minority ethnic girls' underachievement is often overlooked. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characteristic distinguishes female achievements in an educational context?

<p>Understanding exam requirements and fulfilling them. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What do Gorard et al. (2001) conclude regarding male and female attainment in specific subjects?

<p>There is no significant gender difference at the lowest attainment levels in subjects. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What main point does Walker (1996) express regarding changing conceptions of masculinity?

<p>Many young men struggle to navigate educational demands in a changing world. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What impact does the feminisation of schooling have according to some researchers?

<p>Can disadvantage boys due to lack of male role models. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to recent perspectives on gendered educational achievement, which area shows significant improvement for females?

<p>Overall academic achievements in various schools. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

One of the challenges associated with traditional masculinity in education is that it emphasizes what values?

<p>Physical strength and aggressiveness. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In terms of educational outcomes, what do studies suggest about the correlation between class and gender?

<p>Class differences matter more than gender differences. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do teacher expectations play in gendered educational performance?

<p>Gendered expectations affect how students are treated and perceived. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect do teacher expectations have on a student's educational outcome?

<p>They may create self-fulfilling prophecies. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does streaming affect students in schools?

<p>It leads to the reinforcement of educational inequalities. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a consequence of students being placed in lower streams?

<p>They may be perceived as academic failures. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does Keddie (1971) argue about academic labels for students?

<p>They persist throughout a student's schooling experience. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does Gewirtz (1998) suggest about the type of school attended by students?

<p>It can lead to self-fulfilling prophecies of success or failure. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a potential drawback of ability grouping?

<p>It may stigmatize lower-performing students. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do teachers' perceptions of students affect their labeling?

<p>They may interpret behavior based on existing labels. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of banding compared to streaming?

<p>Banding does not necessarily foster academic subcultures. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do student subcultures play in educational attainment?

<p>They can create conflicts affecting educational success. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the implications of the self-fulfilling prophecy in education?

<p>Positive expectations can enhance student performance. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does ability grouping affect educational inequality?

<p>It exacerbates existing educational inequalities. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What criticism do interactionists have regarding labeling theory?

<p>It fails to account for individual agency in resisting labels. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What finding did Hargreaves (1967) highlight regarding streaming?

<p>Once placed, students rarely change streams. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is identified as a potential problem with the processes of streaming, setting, and banding?

<p>They lead to increased teacher-student conflict. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant feature of the educational experience of Black Caribbean boys in the UK?

<p>Their academic performance decreases significantly by GCSE. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following factors contributes to the exclusion of Black Caribbean boys from school?

<p>Disruptive behavior that is not addressed by teachers. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does family structure impact the educational experience of Black Caribbean boys?

<p>Higher single-parenthood rates correlate with poorer educational experiences. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the concept of 'self-fulfilling prophecy' refer to in the educational context for minority ethnic groups?

<p>Low expectations from teachers lead to a decrease in student effort. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Gillborn, why are Black students frequently assigned to lower sets in schools?

<p>Based on outdated racial stereotypes regarding ability. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which group is known to be over-represented in vocational schemes for 'non-academic' students?

<p>Black students (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does Sewell attribute to the educational challenges faced by Black children?

<p>Anti-school peer-group pressure and poor parenting. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one reason suggested for the high educational achievement of students from Asian minorities?

<p>Cultural and family values that emphasize educational success. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does language use affect educational performance according to Bernstein’s arguments?

<p>Use of the elaborated code is necessary for school success. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary concern of New Right arguments in relation to educational failure?

<p>Dysfunctional family structures contributing to dependency cultures. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which stereotype is mentioned regarding Black youths that affects their educational assessment?

<p>They are often viewed as 'lazy'. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key reason for the relatively low educational achievement of Black Caribbean working-class boys?

<p>They face pressure from 'anti-education' peer groups. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is true about the educational experience of African-American students in the USA?

<p>Their dialect is different but equal to standard English. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Elaborated Code

A language code characterized by a complex vocabulary, subtle meanings, abstract thinking, and context independence. It expresses ideas clearly and can be understood in various situations.

Restricted Code

A language code characterized by simple vocabulary, direct meanings, concrete thinking, and context dependence. It relies on shared understanding and context to convey messages.

Higher Levels of Understanding

The ability to understand and use abstract concepts, reason logically, and move beyond simple shared meanings. It requires the use of elaborated language.

Language Code Gap

The gap in language use and cultural capital that can disadvantage working-class students in educational settings.

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Learning the Code

The process of mastering a new code, particularly the elaborated code of school and academia, before being able to fully engage in the learning process.

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Bernstein's Theory of Language Codes

Basil Bernstein's theory that language codes, specifically elaborated and restricted codes, significantly influence educational outcomes.

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Code Clash

The clash between the restricted code often used by working-class students and the elaborated code favored in educational settings.

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Middle-Class Advantage

The advantage that middle-class students possess in education due to their familiarity with elaborated codes, which are often valued in classrooms.

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Teacher Expectations

Teachers' expectations about students' abilities, which can influence their performance.

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Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

A prediction about someone's future that, by being made, becomes true.

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Labelling

Labels attached to students based on their perceived abilities or backgrounds.

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Self-Fulfilling Prophecy in Schools

A process where schools with higher reputations and resources create an environment that encourages high achievement.

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Ability Grouping

The allocation of students into classes based on their perceived ability.

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Streaming

A system where students are placed into different academic tracks based on their perceived ability.

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Setting

A system where students are placed into different academic tracks within individual subjects.

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Banding

A system where students are placed into different bands based on their overall ability and achievement.

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Student Subcultures

Behaviors, values, and attitudes shared by groups of students within a school.

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Internalization of Labels

The tendency for students to internalize negative labels and expectations, leading to lower performance.

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Self-Negating Prophecy

The phenomenon where students labelled as underachievers work harder to prove their capabilities, defying the label.

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Teacher Transmission of Beliefs

Teachers' conscious or subconscious transmission of their beliefs and expectations about students.

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Social Class and Ability Grouping

The tendency for students from lower social classes to be placed in lower ability groups, while students from higher social classes are placed in higher groups.

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Student Subcultures and Attainment

The existence of student subcultures, which can influence students' attainment and behavior.

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Social Inequality and Educational Attainment

The influence of factors such as social class, ethnicity, and gender on student achievement, often through societal biases and expectations.

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Language Codes and Education

The idea that the language used by different social classes affects their educational achievement.

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Cultural Deprivation Theory

A theory that suggests working-class students are less likely to succeed because they lack the cultural knowledge and skills needed in the education system.

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School Failure Theory

The idea that schools fail to provide an equal and fair system for all students, leading to social class differences in achievement.

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Parental Attitudes

A negative attitude towards education, often stemming from parents' own experiences, believing it is not necessary or for them.

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Parental Involvement

The suggestion that working-class parents actively participate in their children's education but face barriers to engagement with the school system.

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Underclass Culture

A theory that suggests a distinct underclass with deviant values disengaged from mainstream society leads to educational underachievement.

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Laborer Market Changes

A theory that links working-class underachievement to social and economic changes, specifically the decline in traditional industrial jobs.

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Teacher Labelling

The process by which teachers categorize and stereotype students based on their perceived characteristics, impacting their self-perception.

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Informal Reputations

The influence of informal reputations and social interactions within the school on how students are perceived and classified.

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Cultural Capital

How the various aspects of a student's home background and cultural knowledge influence their educational experience and success.

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Teacher-Student Interactions

The idea that success in educational settings is not only determined by background but also by how teachers and students interact, creating a 'good pupil' image.

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Streaming, Setting, and Banding

School practices such as streaming, setting, and banding, which categorize students based on perceived ability, affecting their self-perception and labels.

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Reference Groups

Individuals or groups that we compare ourselves to, significantly impacting our own self-perception and identity.

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Self-Fulfilling Prophecies

The theory that teachers' expectations about students' abilities can become reality, effectively shaping their performance and outcomes.

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School Subcultures

A group of students who share similar values and behaviors, often influencing their academic performance and social interactions within the school.

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Pro-School Subcultures

Students who actively embrace and uphold the school's values and norms, often excelling academically.

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Rebellious Subcultures

Students who reject the school's values and norms, sometimes creating their own counter-culture.

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Crisis Of Masculinity

A state of uncertainty or crisis related to traditional male roles, particularly affecting working-class boys who face limited opportunities in a changing job market.

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Pro-Education, Anti-School

Students who value education but reject the specific practices and values of the school, often achieving success on their own terms.

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Permanent Exclusion

The removal of a student from school permanently, often affecting working-class students disproportionately.

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Compensatory Education

Educational programs designed to provide extra support and opportunities to underprivileged students, aiming to bridge the gap in educational attainment between different socioeconomic groups.

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Ethnocentric Curriculum

A teaching style that reflects the values and perspectives of the dominant culture, often excluding or marginalizing the experiences and perspectives of minority groups.

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Racism In Schools

A pattern of prejudice and discrimination against people based on their race or ethnicity, often ingrained in social structures and influencing educational experiences.

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Overt Racism

Openly expressed racism, including verbal abuse, harassment, and discriminatory actions towards minority students.

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Cultural Racism

A subtle form of racism that is embedded in cultural norms, biases, and expectations, disadvantage minority students.

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Lack Of Role Models

The lack of diverse representation and role models within school environments, particularly for minority students.

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Hidden Processes

The hidden assumptions and practices within schools that can systematically disadvantage minority students, limiting equal educational opportunities.

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Extended Schools

A school that provides a range of services beyond the traditional curriculum, such as childcare, parent support, and after-school activities to engage families and students in the educational process.

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Supplementary Schools

Schools established specifically for ethnic minority students, often operating on weekends or evenings, supplementing mainstream education.

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Teacher Expectations and Ethnic Minorities

The idea that teachers may unconsciously base their expectations of students on their ethnicity, leading to a cycle of underachievement.

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Setting and Ethnic Minorities

The process of placing students into different ability groups based on perceived academic potential.

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Under-Representation of Black Caribbean Boys in Higher Sets

The tendency for teachers to assign more Black Caribbean boys to lower ability groups, despite potential.

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Disruptive Behavior and Black Caribbean Boys

A pattern of behavior that is often seen as disruptive by teachers, but may be culturally influenced.

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Exclusion of Black Caribbean Boys

Practices used to exclude Black Caribbean boys from mainstream education, such as suspension and expulsion.

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Culturally Biased Assessment and Ethnic Minorities

The tendency for teachers to use culturally biased assessment methods that disadvantage ethnic minorities.

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Self-Fulfilling Prophecy and Ethnic Minorities

When students come to believe they are not capable of achieving success due to negative messages from teachers and society.

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Institutional Racism in Education

The argument that schools systematically favor white students and disadvantage ethnic minorities, particularly Black students.

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Cultural Explanations for Educational Attainment

Cultural explanations for why some ethnic minorities may underachieve.

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Family Structure and Educational Achievement

The idea that family structures and values may influence educational outcomes.

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Male Role Models and Black Caribbean Boys

The argument that Black Caribbean boys may face challenges due to a lack of male role models and unemployment.

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Peer Pressure and Anti-School Subcultures

The idea that peer pressure and anti-school attitudes can negatively impact educational achievement.

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Cultural and Family Values and Educational Success

The idea that extended family structures and cultural values can contribute to high educational attainment.

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Underclass and Educational Failure

The argument that poverty and economic inequality contribute to educational disparities.

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Language and Educational Attainment

The idea that differences in language and communication may influence educational achievement.

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Passive Acceptors

A group of students who accept and adapt to the dominant white cultural values of the school.

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Active Acceptors

A group of students who consciously act in ways that conform to the white cultural norms of the school, often referred to as 'acting white'.

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Passive Resistors

Students who struggle between conforming to peer pressure and avoiding open conflict with authority. They participate in small acts of rebellion while also avoiding direct confrontation with teachers.

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Active Resistors

Students who openly challenge the perceived racist assumptions of the school system and actively rebel against teachers.

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The Gang (Asian girls)

A subcultural group within Asian girls in UK schools that is generally anti-school and embraces their Asian identity. They view the school's culture as white and racist.

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The Survivors (Asian girls)

A group of Asian girls who excel academically and conform to the 'ideal pupil' archetype. They are pro-school and pro-education, and often seen as 'nice girls' and 'good workers'.

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The Rebels (Asian girls)

An Asian girl group that rejects their cultural background and instead adopts western ways of dressing and behavior. They are pro-school and seek academic success as a way to escape their homes.

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Faith Girls

A group of Asian girls who center their identity around religion rather than ethnicity. They are pro-education and actively engage with teachers and students, but also recognize the school's racism which can make them anti-school.

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Combination Approach

The idea that class is the main determinant of educational disadvantage, with gender and ethnicity being secondary factors operating within class lines.

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Separation Argument

The idea that gender and ethnicity are significant factors in educational achievement, independent of social class.

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Gender Differences in Educational Attainment

The claim that there are consistent and small gender differences in educational attainment across different social classes.

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Focus on Female Success and Overcoming Disadvantage

The shift from research explaining why girls underachieve to research understanding how girls overcome disadvantage in schools.

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Influence of Gender Socialization

The idea that traditional gender roles and expectations impact both working-class girls' family and work life choices.

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Natural Differences in Achievement

The idea that there are inherent biological differences between the brains of men and women, leading to disparities in academic performance.

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Feminisation of Schooling

The theory that boys are disadvantaged in modern education by a system geared towards female success.

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Gender Constructions and Achievement

The idea that societal expectations and gender roles shape how boys and girls behave, impacting their learning outcomes.

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Female-Friendly Teaching Practices

The emphasis on teaching methods, curriculum, and assessment that appear to favor girls, potentially leading to discrimination against boys.

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Teacher Expectations and Achievement

Teacher assumptions and interpretations of student behavior based on preconceived gender roles.

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Girls' Rising Achievement

The idea that girls are generally expected to achieve more than boys, even in cases where this isn't always true.

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Overlooking Female Underachievement

The tendency to overlook female underachievement, particularly among working-class and minority ethnic girls, while focusing on male underachievement.

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Male vs. Female Ability

Teachers' interpretations of male and female academic success, often based on cultural beliefs about innate differences.

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Patriarchal Beliefs and Education

The idea that societal norms and power structures favor boys' education over girls', often rooted in historical patriarchal systems.

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Overgeneralising Female Achievement

The misleading notion that because girls as a group outperform boys, all girls do better than all boys.

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Marxist View on Gender and Achievement

The Marxist perspective that social class plays a more significant role than gender in determining educational achievement.

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Working-Class Boys and Underachievement

The argument that working-class boys are more likely to experience underachievement due to changing male identities and a perceived irrelevance of education.

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Changing Female Identities and Education

The argument that gender roles and expectations are changing, leading to a greater acceptance of women having careers and challenging traditional notions of femininity.

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Changing Conceptions of Masculinity

The challenge faced by young men in finding their place in a rapidly changing world, often leading to difficulties in navigating educational pathways.

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Changing Family Socialisation Processes

The observation that parents' expectations of their children's future roles are shifting, potentially impacting their perception of the value of education for boys and girls.

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Boffin Boys

A subculture of boys who embrace conformity and academic success. They strive for social mobility through hard work and achievement.

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Pro-Education Girls

A group of girls who are both pro-school and pro-education. They value education for its own sake and as a pathway to their aspirations.

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Mod Boys

A subculture of boys who navigate a thin line between deviance and conformity. They want academic qualifications but don't necessarily enjoy school.

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Teacher Expectations and Gendered Behavior

The tendency of teachers to view and respond differently to boys and girls, often based on gender stereotypes. For example, disruptive behavior from boys might be excused as 'masculine' while the same behaviour from girls might be seen as problematic.

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Anti-Education Girls

A group of girls who actively reject school and education. They view school as a waste of time and strive to escape into the adult world as soon as possible.

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Pro-School Girls

A group of girls who find school enjoyable but do not prioritize academic qualifications. They enjoy socializing with friends but see education as less important.

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New Wave Girls

A subculture of girls who are pro-school but have mixed feelings towards education. They have broader interests and aren't afraid to challenge ideas and practices, particularly those they see as sexist.

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Gendered Differential Achievement

The differences in educational attainment between boys and girls, with girls generally outperforming boys.

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Natural Differences Theory

The belief that inherent biological differences between boys and girls lead to natural variations in their educational experiences and outcomes.

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Lack of Engagement Theory

An explanation for male underachievement attributing it to the failure of schools to engage boys effectively and actively. It suggests that the education system needs to adapt to better suit boys' learning styles.

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Masculinity and 'Laddishness'

The concept of 'laddishness' refers to a masculine culture emphasizing traits like physical strength, sexual virility, and dominance. These traits are seen as clashing with traditional educational values and contributing to male underachievement.

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Anti-School Pro-Education Boys

A group of boys who are pro-education but reject school. They aim for academic qualifications but find the school environment unappealing.

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Changing Parental Attitudes

The shift in parental attitudes towards female education, often attributed to the increasing number of women in the workforce. This shift reflects the higher demand for qualifications in the professional world.

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Feminine Curriculum Bias

The claim that curriculum changes have shifted towards 'feminine' subjects and forms of knowledge, allegedly disadvantaging boys. It suggests that the education system is skewed towards female interests.

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Study Notes

Bernstein's Language Codes

  • Bernstein proposed two language codes: restricted and elaborated.
  • These codes aren't class-specific, but are used in different situations and for different purposes.
  • Elaborated code: complex vocabulary, subtle meanings, abstract ideas, context-independent, inclusive with clear explanations.
  • Restricted code: simple, direct meanings, predictable because the audience already understands, concrete ideas, collective understanding with context-dependent meaning, exclusive.

Social Class and Education

  • Middle-class children tend to use elaborated codes, giving them an advantage in education.
  • Education systems are based on elaborated codes and working-class students may need to learn the elaborated code to succeed.
  • Teachers often use elaborated codes, creating a clash with restricted codes used by working-class students.

Cultural Capital & Labelling

  • Students' home backgrounds (cultural capital) influence their experiences and ability to navigate school challenges.
  • Teacher labelling (e.g., "swot," "naughty child") affects self-perception.
  • Teachers' own expectations (self-fulfilling prophecies) significantly impact student success or failure.
  • Streaming, setting, and banding can create negative labels and reinforce inequalities.
  • Teachers' behaviours influence students' perceptions of their abilities.

Student Subcultures

  • Student subcultures exist within schools, sometimes opposing school values.
  • Examples include ingratiators, rebels, and different responses to the school culture based on social class and ethnicity.
  • Subcultures can relate to class, ethnicity, and gender, influencing educational attainment.
  • Permanent exclusion from school and unauthorized absences significantly impact working-class student success.

Compensatory Education

  • Compensatory education programs aim to address cultural disadvantages faced by working-class children.
  • The UK has programs like Education Action Zones and Sure Start.
  • Extended schools offer support services to families, aiming to boost student engagement and motivation.

Ethnicity and Educational Attainment

  • Racism in schools impacts minority ethnic groups through:
    • Overt racism (abuse, harassment) and cultural racism (ethnocentric curriculum, lack of role models).
    • Experiences of labelling, lower teacher expectations, and limited opportunities based on cultural bias.
    • Black Caribbean boys often experience lower attainment, possibly due to masculinity, disciplinary issues and family structure.
  • Asian minorities often achieve higher results due to cultural and family emphasis on education and extended family support.
  • Different ethnic groups may experience underachievement linked to social class and language issues.

Gender and Educational Attainment

  • Socialization influences gender identities and educational choices in terms of school, careers and family.
  • Feminization of schooling may give girls advantages, while male underachievement may stem from changing masculine identities and teacher expectations.
  • Teachers' expectations and gender stereotypes influence behaviour and outcomes.
  • Gender differences in attainment are smaller compared to class differences.

Overall

  • Various factors(social class, ethnicity, gender, parental attitudes, in-school factors) intertwine, influencing educational outcomes and opportunities.

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Description

Explore the concepts of restricted and elaborated language codes proposed by Bernstein and their impact on education. Understand how these codes affect students from different social classes, particularly the challenges faced by working-class students in an education system that favors elaborated codes. Discover the relationship between cultural capital and student experiences.

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