Lakshmikanth's Polity: UPSC Prelims Study

Introduction to the Study of Lakshmikanth's Polity

• The aim is to deeply understand the UPSC syllabus by dissecting Lakshmikanth's book chapter-wise.
• Recent UPSC papers show a trend of asking questions "between the lines," requiring a thorough understanding of the subject matter.
• Many capable students are unable to qualify for the mains exam due to difficulties in clearing the prelims.
• The goal is to provide value addition to help students confidently tackle Polity questions in the prelims.
• In 2023, UPSC asked 15 questions from Polity, indicating its consistent importance.
• A focus on conceptual clarity and recall ability can lead to success in answering Polity questions.

Trend Analysis of Polity Questions in UPSC Exams

• UPSC has asked 15 questions on polity in recent years.
• The difficulty level for polity is moderate if your concepts are clear and you can recall them.
• Examples of questions asked in 2023 include the Governor General of India and an emphasis on understanding "Due Process of Law."

Historical Background of the Indian Constitution

• To understand the basics, a grasp of the historical context is essential as that is where our constitution comes from.
• This starts with modern history, specifically after the death of Aurangzeb and the arrival of Europeans.
• In 1600, the British East India Company received a Royal Charter from their monarch, similar to modern India allowing a private company to trade overseas.
• Initially, the British engaged in trade and diplomacy.

Arrival and Activities of Europeans in India

• Various European powers, including the English, French, Danish, and Portuguese.
• These powers established factories, formed alliances with local rulers, and traded goods like spices, cotton, and indigo.
• After 1765, the British began to establish dominance over India.

Key Events Leading to British Dominance

• Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II granted the British "Diwani," which is the right to collect taxes.
• This Diwani was granted in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa after the Battle of Buxar in 1764, a highly decisive battle.
• The British gained trade benefits and influence by defeating the armies of the Mughal Empire, Awadh, and Bengal.
• Bombay was acquired through a dowry from the Portuguese.
• The British forged relationships with the Portuguese while dealing with other powers such as to Dutch and French.

Company Rule vs. Crown Rule

• History is divided into two phases: Company Rule (1773-1858) and Crown Rule (1858-1947).
• Crown Rule began after a significant event of martyrdom, referring to the 1857 revolt.
• Originally, they came to India to trade, later influencing royal courts and eventually assuming power.
• British Parliament regulated the company through various acts, including the Regulating Acts and Charter Acts.

The Regulating Act of 1773

• Enacted because the company was becoming ungovernable (Belagaam).
• Designed to regulate, but not take over, the company's power.
• The Governor of Bengal was redesignated as the Governor-General of Bengal.
• This means the Governor General of the Presidency of Fort William
• Warren Hastings became the first Governor-General of Bengal.
• Governors of Bombay and Madras were made subordinate to the Governor-General of Bengal.
• The move aimed to create a central administration in the country.
• The act recognized the political and administrative functions of the company.
• It was prompted by the British Parliament's concern over the company's growing power and the wealth of its officials.

Provisions within the Act

• Private trade and acceptance of bribes were prohibited for company servants.
• A Court of Directors was established to oversee the company's operations in Britain.
• A Supreme Court was established in Calcutta, with one Chief Justice and three other judges.
• An executive council was formed for the Governor-General, consisting of 1 Governor-General plus 4 members.
• The Court of Directors reported on revenue, civil, and military affairs to the British Parliament.

The Amending Act of 1781

• Also known as the Act of Settlement, aimed to rectify errors in the Regulating Act of 1773.
• Exempted the Governor-General, Council, and company servants acting in their official capacity from the Supreme Court's jurisdiction.
• Excluded revenue matters from the Supreme Court's jurisdiction.
• Stated that the Supreme Court could only address the personal laws of defendants.
• Personal laws include governance through the Hindu Marriage Act and Muslim (aka "mohammedan") law.
• Limited the Supreme Court's jurisdiction to residents of Calcutta.
• Appeals from lower courts were to be directed to the Governor-General-in-Council, not the Supreme Court.

Pitt's India Act of 1784

• Redefined company territories in India as "British Possessions in India."
• Affirmed the British government's supreme control over the company's affairs.
• Differentiated between the company's commercial and political functions.
• Court of Directors managed commercial functions.
• A new body, the Board of Control, managed civil, military, and revenue affairs.

Establishment of the Board of Control

• The Board of Control was created to oversee civil, military, and revenue-related political matters.
• This new body held greater power than Court of Directors.
• A three-member committee of directors was in constant contact with the British government for political matters.

Act of 1786

• Lord Cornwallis, a British Army officer, was appointed.
• Cornwallis demanded overriding power over his council in special cases aka Veto power.
• Cornwallis demanded to be appointed as Commander-in-Chief, which means Military Power.
• His demands were fulfilled through the Act of 1786.

Charter Act of 1793

• Extended the company's monopoly in India for another 20 years.
• Members of the Board of Control and their staff were to be paid from Indian revenue. This is an English tax on India.
• Extended the overriding powers of the Governor-General to all future Governors-General and Governors.

Charter Act of 1813

• Ended the company's monopoly except for trade in tea and trade with China.
• Advocated for the propagation of Western education in India.
• Allowed Christian missionaries to propagate Christianity.
• Empowered local governments to impose taxes on individuals and punish them for non-payment.

Charter Act of 1833

• The Governor-General of Bengal was made the Governor-General of India.
• This established the first formal government of India.
• Lord William Bentick became the first Governor-General of India.
• Governors of Bombay and Madras were stripped of their legislative powers.
• Legislation was now governed by the Governor General.
• Preceding laws were termed as Regulations, and the new laws are termed as Acts.
• The company was converted into a purely administrative body.
• Attempted to introduce a system of open competition for civil services, but this was vetoed.

Charter Act of 1853

• Introduced open competition for civil services.
• A Macaulay Committee was created, who defined how those civil service exams should be run.
• Separated the legislative and executive functions of the Governor-General's Council.
• Established the Indian Central Legislative Council with local representation.

Government of India Act of 1858

• Transferred powers from the East India Company to the British Crown following the Revolt of 1857.
• The Governor-General of India was now the title of the Viceroy representing Britian.
• Lord Canning became the first Viceroy of India.
• Abolished the East India Company.

Creation of the Secretary of State for India

• Created the office of Secretary of State for India in London as a minister responsible for Indian administration.
• Established a 15-member Council of India to assist the Secretary. This means the government in England had more control over the government in India.

Indian Councils Act of 1861

• Initiated the inclusion of Indians in the law-making process.
• Included Indians as non-official members of the Viceroy's Council.
• 3 Indians were nominated as the original non-official members, they include: Raja of Benaras, Maharaja of Patiala and Sir Dinkar Rao. New legislative councils were established.
• Restored legislative powers to Bombay and Madras Presidencies.

Indian Councils Act of 1892

• Increased the number of additional members in central and provincial legislative councils.
• Initiated nomination of non-official council members.
• Introduced the concept of budget discussion within British India.
• Enabled legislative councils with questions to the executive.
• Provided a provision for using elections to fill non official seats.

Morley-Minto Reforms of 1909

• Morley was the Secretary of State, and Minto was the Viceroy.
• Increased the size of legislative councils at the central and provincial levels.
• Introduced the first communal representation for Muslims through separate electorates.
• Lord Minto became known as the Father of Communal Electorate b/c of what he introduced.
• Appointed Satyendra Prasad Sinha as new Council member with law.

Government of India Ach of 1919

• Motague was the Sec. of State while Chelmsford was the Viceroy.
• Central and provincial subjects were separated.
• Provincial subjects were divided into transferred and reserved categories.
• Introduced bicameralism and direct elections.
• On recommendation of Lee Commission, created the Central PLSC aka the modern UPSC which was setup in 1926.

Government of India Ach of 1935

• Provided setup of Federal & Provincial commissions.
• Est. the Federal PSC aka the modern UPSC.
• Established Reserve Bank of India aka RBI.
• Federal powers were split between the federal list, providencial list and cocurrent list.
• Extended the power of representation, but based on the cominial lines.

Indian Independence Ach of 1947

• Clement Attlee declared the end of British rule in india between a year from his statement.
• The current state/shape of Pakistan was because of the Indian Idependence Act made by Mount Button that was accepted by the Congress and League.
• The Mount Button Plan allowed for two domininans (Pakistan and India) to exist.
• Each domain would have a governor-general, and for India, it would be Mount Button while Nehru would serve as prime minisiter.