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Which rotor type is the most widely used for centrifugation?
What do particles with higher density than the solvent do in a solution?
sink
Mass is dependent on the location where the measurement is taken.
False
What is the purpose of laboratory instrumentation?
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In a spring balance, the stress in the spring is proportional to the _____.
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Laboratory equipment is generally electronic in nature.
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Match the water bath type with its description:
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What is the purpose of a laboratory mixer?
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The first infant incubator, heated by kerosene lamps, appeared in 1884 in Paris.
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A ___________ is a device that measures a physical quantity such as flow, concentration, temperature, level, etc.
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What is the purpose of an autoclave?
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What is the principle of conductometry?
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A hot air oven is primarily used for sterilization by providing moist heat.
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It is suggested to operate a water bath involving fumes in a ______ or in a well-ventilated area.
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It is recommended to use distilled water when filling the water bath.
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What are the components in a mechanical refrigeration system?
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Match the laboratory type with its description:
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Match the anaerobic jar components with their descriptions:
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What is the primary function of an incubator in a laboratory?
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Turbidimetry and nephelometry are techniques based on the scattering of __________ by a suspension of colloidal particles.
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What is the main application of lyophilization in the pharmaceutical industry?
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Ion-selective electrodes are used to determine the concentrations of various ions in _______ solutions.
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Electron microscopes equipped for X-ray spectroscopy can provide qualitative and quantitative elemental __________.
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What are the materials commonly used for the interiors of laboratory water baths?
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What is the purpose of lyophilization?
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Osmometry is used to measure the osmotic strength of a substance.
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What is the purpose of using lift-off or hinged lids in laboratory water baths?
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What is the most commonly used microtome for routine histopathology?
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X-ray microscopy has a lower resolution than light microscopy.
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What are the requirements for laboratory equipment?
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ELISA uses an enzyme system and immunosorbent to detect or quantify ______ or antigen.
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What is the working principle of polarography?
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What is the principle of coulometry?
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What is the purpose of a pinhole in confocal microscopy?
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What is the purpose of automated analyzers?
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Radioimmunoassay (RIA) is a sensitive method for measuring small amounts of a substance in the blood.
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What is a common method used for staining structures or compounds?
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What is the purpose of lyophilization?
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Who is responsible for maintaining laboratory equipment?
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Match the following microscopy techniques with their respective descriptions:
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What is the environment of use for laboratory equipment?
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What is the principle of immuno-based analysers?
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What are hematology analysers used for?
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How do automated cell counters work?
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What is the Coulter principle?
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What is the purpose of a coagulometer?
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What is the purpose of an automated Westergren-based ESR analyzer?
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What are some examples of miscellaneous analysers?
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What is solvent extraction?
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What is Soxhlet extraction?
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What is chromatography?
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What is flow cytometry?
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Study Notes
Laboratory Instrumentation
- Laboratory instrumentation is the use of instruments for observation, measurement, or control in laboratory tests.
- It involves the development or use of measuring instruments for observation, monitoring, or control.
Laboratory Instruments
- A laboratory instrument is any implement, tool, or utensil used for laboratory tests.
- An instrument is a device that measures a physical quantity, such as flow, concentration, temperature, level, distance, angle, or pressure.
- Medical instruments are devices used to diagnose or treat diseases.
- Instruments may be simple or complex.
Laboratory Equipment
- Laboratory equipment refers to the various tools and equipment used by scientists working in a laboratory.
- It involves the measuring tools used in a scientific laboratory, often electronic in nature.
- Equipment is used to either perform an experiment or take measurements and gather data.
- Larger or more sophisticated equipment is generally called a scientific instrument.
Laboratory Techniques
- Laboratory techniques are the sum of procedures used in pure and applied sciences to conduct an experiment.
- All laboratory techniques follow the scientific method, while some involve the use of complex laboratory equipment, others require specific or expensive supplies.
Laboratory Apparatus
- Laboratory apparatus is a set of equipment or tools or a machine that is used for a particular purpose.
- It involves the individual instruments or pieces of equipment, or the entire set of equipment, needed to conduct projects and experiments.
- The laboratory apparatus depends on the type of laboratory and the experiment being conducted.
Laboratory Tools
- A laboratory tool is any physical item that can be used to achieve a goal, especially if the item is not consumed in the process.
- Tools that are used in particular fields or activities may have different designations, such as "instrument", "utensil", "implement", "machine", "device", or "apparatus".
- The set of tools needed to achieve a goal is called "equipment".
Autoclave
- An autoclave is a device that uses steam to sterilize equipment and other objects.
- It is essentially a large steel vessel that can withstand extreme pressures.
- Autoclaving is often used to sterilize medical waste prior to disposal.
- Autoclaves are used in various fields, including medicine, dentistry, and veterinary science.
Working Principle of an Autoclave
- Autoclaves operate by using steam under pressure as a sterilizing agent.
- Most of the heating power of steam comes from its latent heat of vaporization.
- Steam at 100°C has almost seven times more heat than water at 100°C.
How Does Killing Occur?
- Moist heat kills microorganisms by causing coagulation of essential proteins.
- When heat is used as a sterilizing agent, the vibratory motion of every molecule of a microorganism is increased, inducing the cleavage of intramolecular hydrogen bonds between proteins.
Standard Temperature and Pressure for an Autoclave
- Standard temperatures and pressures employed in autoclaving are 115°C / 10 p.s.i., 121°C / 15 p.s.i., and 132°C / 27 p.s.i.
- Autoclaving generally involves heating in saturated steam under a pressure of approximately 15 psi to achieve a chamber temperature of at least 121°C.
How Does the Autoclave Itself Work?
- Steam enters the chamber jacket, passes through an operating valve, and enters the rear of the chamber behind a baffle plate.
- It flows forward and down through the chamber and the load, exiting at the front bottom.
- A pressure regulator maintains jacket and chamber pressure at a minimum of 15 psi.
Test for the Efficacy of an Autoclave
- Chemical indicators on medical packaging on autoclave tape change color to signify appropriate processing of items inside.
- Autoclave tape is only a marker that steam and heat have activated the dye.
- More difficult challenge devices, such as the Bowie-Dick device, are used to verify a full cycle.
Application of an Autoclave
- Autoclaves are widely used in microbiology, medicine, podiatry, tattooing, body piercing, veterinary science, mycology, funeral homes, dentistry, and prosthetics fabrication.
- Autoclaves are also used to cure composites and in the vulcanization of rubber.
Centrifuges
- A laboratory centrifuge is a piece of laboratory equipment that spins liquid samples at high speed.
- Centrifuges work by the sedimentation principle, where the centripetal acceleration is used to separate substances of greater and lesser density.
Types of Centrifuges
- Microcentrifuges are used for small tubes, clinical centrifuges are used for clinical applications, multipurpose high-speed centrifuges are used for a broad range of tube sizes, and ultracentrifuges are used for analytical and preparative models.
Centrifugation
- Centrifugation is used to separate particles or macromolecules, such as cells, sub-cellular components, proteins, and nucleic acids, based on their size, shape, and density.
- The methodology involves artificially induced gravitational fields.
Centrifuge Rotors
- Fixed angle rotors are the most widely used rotor type, while swinging bucket rotors are used for density gradient centrifugation.
Care and Maintenance of Centrifuges
- Care and maintenance of centrifuges involve ensuring that loads are evenly balanced, observing manufacturer's maximum speed and sample density ratings, and regularly cleaning the rotor.
Electronic Balance
- An electronic balance is a device that measures the mass of an object with high accuracy and precision.
- Electronic balances are used in various fields, including laboratory, clinical, and industrial applications.
Mass and Weight
- Mass is a constant unit of the amount of matter an object possesses, while weight is the heaviness of an object, dependent on the gravity and mass of the object.
- The process of determining both mass and weight is called weighing.
Balance and Scale Terms
- Accuracy is the ability of a scale to provide a result that is as close as possible to the actual value.
- Calibration is the comparison between the output of a scale or balance against a standard value.
- Capacity is the heaviest load that can be measured on the instrument.
- Precision is the amount of agreement between repeated measurements of the same quantity.
- Readability is the smallest division at which the scale can be read.
Balance and Scale Types
- Analytical balances are used for high-precision measurements, equal arm balances are used for simple weighing applications, platform scales are used for heavy objects, spring balances are used for quick and easy measurements, top-loading balances are used for laboratory applications, torsion balances are used for microbalances, and triple-beam balances are used for educational applications.### Laboratory Equipment and Techniques
Precision Weighing Balances
- High precision laboratory balances with a maximum capacity and display increments of 0.001g (1mg)
- Useful for applications that require more than standard balances, such as determining the difference between initial and residual weights
- Features include protective in-use cover, security bracket, internal calibration, and LCD display with backlight
Care and Use of Balances and Scales
- Ensure items to be measured are at room temperature to avoid inaccurate readings
- Clean balances regularly to prevent corrosion and contamination
- Check previous usage of the balance to prevent contamination with harmful chemicals
- Use the correct weight sets to calibrate the balance regularly
- Keep the balance clean and avoid damaging it
Laboratory Water Baths
- Water baths are used for various applications such as sample thawing, bacteriological examinations, and warming reagents
- Boiling baths can reach 100°C (under normal conditions), while baths that work above 100°C require a liquid such as oil
- Baths that work below ambient temperature require an internal or external cooling system
Types of Water Baths
- Unstirred water baths: cheapest and least accurate temperature control
- Stirred water baths: more accurate temperature control with an in-built pump/circulator
- Circulating water baths: ideal for applications that require high temperature uniformity
- Non-circulating water baths: less accurate temperature control, with optional add-ons for stirring
- Shaking water baths: feature a speed-controlled shaking platform tray
- Cooled water baths: available as integrated systems or with a separate cooling system
Construction and Dimensions of Laboratory Water Baths
- Typically made of stainless steel or chemically resistant plastic/epoxy coated steel
- Controllers can be analogue or digital
- Features include thermometer, pressure gauge, and side tubes for evacuation and gas introduction
Care and Maintenance of Laboratory Water Baths
- Monitor water level and refill with distilled water only
- Disinfectants can be added to prevent growth of organisms
- Raise the temperature to 90°C or higher for half an hour weekly for decontamination
- Use water-resistant markers and operate in a well-ventilated area if necessary
Anaerobic Jars
- Used to create an anaerobic environment for bacterial culture
- Method of use involves placing the culture media, indicator, and gas-pak sachet in the jar, evacuating and replacing the air with a mixture of gases
- The jar is then incubated at the desired temperature
Gas-Pak
- A method used to create an anaerobic environment for bacterial culture
- Commercially available, disposable sachets that produce an atmosphere free of oxygen
- Constituents include sodium borohydride, sodium bicarbonate, citric acid, cobalt chloride, and a dicot catalyst
Colorimeter
- A device used to measure the absorbance of different wavelengths of light in a solution
- Can be used to measure the concentration of a known solute
- Works on the basis of Beer-Lambert's law, which states that the absorption of light is directly proportional to the concentration of the medium
- Consists of a light source, filter, cuvette chamber, detector, and galvanometer
Applications of Colorimeter
- Monitoring the growth of bacterial or yeast cultures
- Assessing the color of bird plumage
- Measuring the color of foods and beverages
- Testing water quality by screening for chemicals
- Determining the concentrations of plant nutrients and hemoglobin in blood
Flame Photometers
- A technique used to quantify the concentration of certain elements, particularly alkali and alkaline earth metals
- Involves the emission of radiation by neutral atoms, which is measured by a detector
- The specificity of the wavelength of light emitted makes it a qualitative aspect, while the intensity of the radiation depends on the concentration of the element
Ion-Selective Electrodes (ISEs)
- Used to determine the concentrations of various ions in aqueous solutions
- Applications include pollution monitoring, agriculture, food and beverage analysis, biomedical laboratories, and explosives
Hot Air Oven
- Used for sterilization by providing dry heat
- Can be operated from 50 to 300°C (122 to 572°F)
- Features include a thermostat, digital control, and double-walled insulation for energy conservation### Laboratory Ovens
- Used in the sterilization of pharmaceutical products and other materials
- Double-walled chamber made of steel
- Types of ovens:
- Laboratory Oven
- High Temperature Lab Oven
- Industrial Oven
- Top Loading Annealing Oven
- Pharmaceutical Oven
- Vacuum Oven
- Bench Oven
Laboratory Ovens
- Hot air ovens are used to attain constant temperatures inside every corner of the oven chamber
- Most common size of Laboratory oven has inner chamber dimensions of 24 x 24 x 24 inches, although they can start from 12 x 12 x 12 inches
- Maximum temperature for Laboratory Ovens can vary from 100°C to over 350°C, with 250°C being the most preferred range
- Can also be termed as Clean Room Ovens
High Temperature Lab Ovens
- Advanced version of Laboratory oven with the same principle of operation
- Temperature range is higher, classified as ovens having temperatures from 300°C to 550°C
- Control unit ensures a homogenous temperature profile in the chamber
- Suitable for simple process of drying and heating of common materials
- Units work noiselessly
Working Principle of Hot Air Ovens
- Based on the principle of hot air circulation inside the chamber
- Hot air rises to the top of the chamber and is circulated back to the bottom by a fan
- Optimum amount of heat is achieved gradually inside the hot air oven
Applications of Hot Air Ovens
- Mainly used for sterilization of:
- Glasswares (e.g. pestle and mortars, petri dishes, flasks, pipettes, bottles, test tubes)
- Powders (e.g. sulphacetamides, sulphadiazines, kaolin, zinc oxide, starch)
- Injections (e.g. fixed oils, progestrone, testosterone propionate, oestradiols dipropionate)
- Surgical instruments (e.g. scalpels, scissors, spatula, blades, glass syringes)
- Chemicals and glassware in laboratories, research institutions, industries, and hospitals
Advantages of Hot Air Ovens
- Used for sterilization of substances that get spoiled during moist heat sterilization
- Suitable for sterilization of assembled equipment (e.g. all-glass syringes)
- Not damaging to glass and metal equipment
- Does not corrode or rust instruments or needles
- Sterilizes instruments containing many parts that cannot be disassembled
Disadvantages of Hot Air Ovens
- Not suitable for sterilization of surgical dressings
- Not suitable for most medicaments, rubber, and plastic goods
- Dry heat penetrates slowly and unevenly
- Requires long exposure times to achieve sterility
- Requires higher temperatures that many items cannot be safely exposed to
- Requires specialized packaging materials that can sustain integrity under high heat conditions
Precautions for Hot Air Ovens
- Glass apparatus must be wrapped with clean cloth or filter paper
- Containers must be plugged with non-absorbent cotton wool
- Avoid placing articles at the floor of the oven
- Do not overload the oven with materials
- Ensure sufficient space between the articles for uniform heat distribution
Laboratory Refrigerator
- Used for storage of:
- Reagents
- Stock cultures
- Media
- Patient specimens
- Blood and its derivatives
- Biological fluids
- Never store food or drink for human consumption in a laboratory refrigerator
- Always label and warn about potentially hazardous substances
Laboratory Mixer
- Allows for mixing of smaller quantities of material (up to 100 gallons or 380 liters)
- Capable of handling solutions with viscosities up to 150,000 cps
- Laboratory mixers are available with various options:
- Speeds up to 10,000 rpm
- Through-shaft design for easy shaft and propeller adjustment
- Digital display of speed, torque, and timer functions
- Sample light for easy viewing during low-light conditions
- Remote controller for easy adjustment from up to six feet away
- RS232 connectivity for easy data collection
Blood Mixers/Rollers
- Used for mixing and rolling blood samples
Laboratory Incubator
- Comprises a transparent chamber and equipment that regulates temperature, humidity, and ventilation
- Used for:
- Promoting pathogenic growth
- Tissue culture
- Genetic engineering
- Storage of reagents and biological materials
Microtome
- Used to cut extremely thin slices of tissues (known as sections)
- Types of microtomes:
- Rotary microtome
- Sliding microtome
- Cryostat
- Freezing microtome
- Rocking microtome
- Ultra-thin section microtome
- Most commonly used microtome for routine histopathology is the rotary microtome
Applications of Microtome
- Traditional histology technique
- Cryosectioning technique
- Electron microscopy technique
- Botanical microtomy technique
Rotary Microtome
- Most commonly used microtome
- Operates with a staged rotary action
- Knife is typically fixed in a horizontal position
- Block holder or block is mounted on the steel carriage that moves up and down and is advanced by a micrometer screw
Auto-Cut Microtome
- Has a built-in motor drive with foot and hand control
- Suitable for cutting thin sections of paraffin wax blocks and resin sections
- Allows for adjusting cutting angle and knife angle
Sledge Microtome
- Used for preparing large samples
- Typical cut thickness achievable is between 10 and 60 microns
Microtome Types and Functions
- Rotary microtome: Most common microtome, used for sectioning of paraffin embedded blocks
- Base sledge microtome: Heavy-duty microtome, used for sectioning celloidin embedded tissue
- Rocking microtome: Small microtome, used for sectioning small soft blocks
- Sliding microtome: Unusual design microtome, used for celloidin sectioning
- Ultramicrotome: Used mainly for electron microscopy
- Hand microtome: Very early microtome, used for botanical specimens
The Microtome Knives
- Microtome knives are usually developed to fit a particular microtome and to cope with different degrees of hardness of tissue and embedding media
- In modern laboratories, the most widely used knife is the disposable steel blade
Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assays (ELISAs)
- Rapid test used for detecting or quantifying antibody or antigen against viruses, bacteria, and other materials
- Makes use of basic antigen-antibody interactions to determine the presence or absence of a corresponding antibody or antigen in question in biological samples
- Enzyme catalyzes the substrate to give a color end point
- Intensity of the color gives an indication of the amount of bound antibody or antigen
Types of ELISA
- Direct ELISA
- Indirect ELISA
- Sandwich ELISA
- Competitive ELISA
Equipments Used in ELISA
- Microwell plate
- Multichannel micro-pipette
- Microplate washer
- ELISA reader
Reagents Used in ELISA
- Various reagents are used depending on the type of ELISA
ELISA Reader
- Used to measure the absorbance of the color produced in the ELISA reaction
- Principle: measures the intensity of the color produced in the ELISA reaction
- Difference between ELISA reader and spectrophotometer: ELISA readers are specifically designed for intensity measurements on a large number of samples, using a very small volume of sample
Microscopy
- Technical field of using microscopes to view objects and areas of objects that cannot be seen with the unaided eye
- Three well-known branches of microscopy:
- Optical
- Electron
- Scanning probe microscopy
Stereo Microscope
- Optical or light microscopy involves passing visible light transmitted through or reflected from the sample through a single or multiple lenses to allow a magnified view of the sample
- Limitation: can only image dark or strongly refracting objects effectively
Fluorescence Microscope
- When certain compounds are illuminated with high energy light, they emit light of a lower frequency
- Many different fluorescent dyes can be used to stain different structures or chemical compounds
- One particularly powerful method is the combination of antibodies coupled to a fluorophore as in immunostaining
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Description
This quiz covers the basics of laboratory instrumentation, including the use and application of instruments for observation, measurement, or control.
