Laboratory Equipment and Biology Branches

Laboratory Equipment

• Burets are used to accurately measure the volume of liquid added, with a precision of up to 0.01 mL.
• Watch glasses are used for holding small samples or covering beakers and evaporating dishes.
• Wire gauze supported by a ring is used to heat beakers using a Bunsen burner.
• Clay triangles are placed on a ring attached to a ring stand to support funnels, crucibles, or evaporating dishes.
• Balances are used to determine the mass of reagents or objects.

Branches of Biology

• Botany is the study of plants, covering their structure, growth, reproduction, and taxonomy.
• Zoology studies animals, including their behavior, physiology, evolution, and classification.
• Microbiology focuses on microorganisms, such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protozoa.
• Genetics investigates heredity, genes, and genetic variations in organisms.
• Ecology studies the interactions between organisms and their environments, encompassing ecosystems and conservation biology.

Parts of a Compound Microscope

• Base holds up the microscope.
• Light source directs ambient light upwards through the stage, illuminating the specimen.
• Stage is a flat platform that supports the slide containing the specimen.
• Body tube connects the head to the objective lenses and serves as a support for the eyepieces.
• Revolving nosepiece holds the objective lenses.
• Stage clips secure the slide in place.
• Fine adjustment knob fine-tunes the focus for a sharper image.
• Coarse adjustment knob moves the stage up and down for initial focusing.
• Eyepiece is the lens you look through at the top of the microscope.

Microscope Magnification

• The magnification of a microscope is calculated using the formula: Magnification (M) = Magnifying Power of the Objective Lens × Magnifying Power of the Eyepiece (or Ocular Lens).

Levels of Biological Organization

• Biological organization is a hierarchical system ranging from individual atoms to the entire biosphere.
• Atom is the smallest unit of matter that retains the properties of a specific element.

Carbohydrates

• Carbohydrate oxidation provides energy for the body.
• Carbohydrates are stored as glycogen, providing a short-term energy reserve.
• Carbohydrate synthesis provides carbon atoms for other biochemical substances like proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids.
• Carbohydrates form part of the structural framework of DNA and RNA molecules.

Monosaccharides

• Monosaccharides contain a single polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone unit.
• They cannot be broken down into simpler substances by hydrolysis reactions.
• Glucose is the main sugar in the body.
• Galactose is found in milk.

Polysaccharides

• Polysaccharides contain many monosaccharide units covalently linked together.
• They can contain hundreds to millions of monosaccharide units.
• Starch is a storage form of energy in plants, composed of glucose molecules linked in long chains.
• Glycogen is a storage polysaccharide in animals, primarily found in the liver and muscles.
• Cellulose is a structural polysaccharide found in plant cell walls, providing rigidity and support.

Lipids

• Lipids are a diverse group of molecules that are insoluble in water due to their nonpolar hydrocarbon chains.
• They play important roles in energy storage, cell structure, and hormone regulation.
• Triglycerides are the most common dietary fat, composed of three fatty acids attached to a glycerol molecule.
• Phospholipids consist of two fatty acids and a phosphate group attached to glycerol.
• Steroids are lipids with a distinctive four-ring structure, examples include cholesterol, estrogen, and testosterone.
• Waxes are long-chain fatty acids combined with long-chain alcohols or other hydrophobic molecules.

Saturated vs Unsaturated Fatty Acids

• Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds between carbon atoms in their hydrocarbon chains.
• Saturated fatty acids are typically solid at room temperature and are often associated with "bad cholesterol" (low-density lipoprotein).
• Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds between carbon atoms in their hydrocarbon chains.
• Unsaturated fatty acids are typically liquid at room temperature and are often associated with "good cholesterol" (high-density lipoprotein).

Taxonomy

• Taxonomy is the science of naming and classifying organisms based on their characteristics and evolutionary relationships.

Homologous vs Analogous Structures

• Homologous structures are similar structures in different species that share a common ancestor, but may have different functions.
• Analogous structures are structures in different species that share similar functions, but have different underlying structures and origins.

Kingdom Classification

• Animalia - Animals, multicellular, heterotrophic, and lacking cell walls.
• Plantae - Plants, multicellular, autotrophic, and containing cell walls made of cellulose.
• Fungi - Fungi, heterotrophic, saprophytic or parasitic, with cell walls made of chitin.
• Protista - Protists, single-celled or multicellular, diverse group, including algae, protozoa, slime molds.
• Monera - Bacteria, single-celled organisms, prokaryotic, lacking a true nucleus.

Different Type of Domain

• Archaea - Prokaryotic organisms with unique biochemistry and often live in extreme environments.
• Bacteria - Prokaryotic organisms that are ubiquitous and diverse in their metabolism and habitats.
• Eukarya - Organisms containing a true nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles, including plants, animals, fungi, and protists.

Classes of Animals

• Mammalia: Mammals have hair or fur, mammary glands, three middle ear bones, and a four-chambered heart.
• Aves: Birds have feathers, wings, a beak without teeth, and a four-chambered heart.
• Reptilia: Reptiles have scales, lungs, three-chambered heart, and lay eggs.
• Amphibia: Amphibians have smooth, moist skin, lay eggs, and undergo metamorphosis.
• Pisces: Fish have gills, fins, and scales.
• Insecta: Insects have a hard exoskeleton, three body segments (head, thorax, abdomen), and six legs.
• Arachnida: Arachnids have eight legs, a two-part body (cephalothorax, abdomen), and no wings.
• Mollusca: Mollusks have a soft body, often protected by a shell, and a muscular foot.
• Echinodermata: Echinoderms have radial symmetry, spiny skin, and a water vascular system.

Anatomy, Physiology, and Cell Biology

• Anatomy studies the structure and organization of organisms.
• Physiology investigates the functioning and mechanisms of living organisms.
• Cell biology focuses on cells, their structure, function, and processes.
• Molecular biology studies biological processes at the molecular level, including DNA, RNA, and proteins.
• Entomology specializes in the study of insects and their biology.
• Immunology explores the immune system and its response to pathogens and foreign substances.
• Parasitology studies parasites and their interactions with host organisms.
• Neurobiology investigates the nervous system and the structure and function of the brain.
• Taxonomy focuses on classifying and naming organisms based on their characteristics and evolutionary relationships.

Lipids

• Sphingolipids are vital components of cell membranes and play a role in cell signaling.
• Lipoproteins are complexes of lipids and proteins that transport lipids within the bloodstream. Examples include LDL (low-density lipoprotein) and HDL (high-density lipoprotein), both of which are essential for cholesterol transport.
• Eicosanoids are signaling molecules derived from fatty acids, including prostaglandins and leukotrienes, which are involved in inflammation and various physiological processes.

Kingdoms

• Arthropoda is a phylum characterized by jointed appendages, an exoskeleton, and includes insects, spiders, and crustaceans.
• Echinodermata is a phylum featuring animals with radial symmetry, spiny skin, and a water vascular system, including starfish, sea urchins, and sea cucumbers.
• Chordata is a phylum comprised of animals with a notochord, a dorsal nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, and a post-anal tail. This includes fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals.

Mammalia

• Mammals are characterized by hair or fur, mammary glands, three middle ear bones, and a four-chambered heart.

Biology

• Anatomy is the study of the structure and organization of organisms.
• Physiology is the study of the functioning and mechanisms of living organisms.
• Cell Biology focuses on cells, their structure, function, and processes.
• Molecular Biology investigates biological processes at the molecular level, including DNA, RNA, and proteins.
• Entomology is the study of insects and their biology.
• Immunology studies the immune system and its responses to pathogens and foreign substances.
• Parasitology focuses on parasites and their interactions with their host organisms.
• Neurobiology explores the nervous system and the structure and function of the brain.
• Taxonomy is the science of classifying and naming organisms based on their characteristics and evolutionary relationships.

Levels of Biological Organization

• Atom: The smallest unit of matter retaining the properties of a specific element.
• Molecule: A group of atoms bonded together.
• Organelle: A specialized structure within a cell performing a specific function.
• Cell: The basic unit of life.
• Tissue: A group of similar structure and function cells.
• Organ: A group of tissues working together to perform a specific function.
• Organ System: A group of organs working together for a vital function.
• Organism: A living individual.
• Population: A group of organisms of the same species living in the same area
• Community: All populations of organisms living in a particular area.
• Ecosystem: A community of organisms and their physical environment (biotic and abiotic).
• Biosphere: The part of Earth that supports life.

Parts of the Cells

• Nucleus: Controls cell activities and houses genetic material (DNA).
• Mitochondria: Produce energy through cellular respiration.
• Ribosomes: Sites of protein synthesis.
• Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): A network of membranes involved in protein synthesis and lipid production.
• Golgi Apparatus: Packages and modifies proteins for transport.
• Lysosomes: Contain enzymes that break down cellular waste.
• Cytoskeleton: Provides structural support and aids in cell movement.
• Cell Membrane: Controls the movement of substances into and out of the cell.
• Vacuoles: Storage organelles (especially large in plant cells).
• Chloroplasts (plant cells): Convert sunlight into energy through photosynthesis.
• Nucleolus: Region within the nucleus involved in ribosome production.
• Cytosol: Jelly-like substance that fills the cell.
• Centrioles: Involved in cell division (organizing microtubules).

Animal vs Plant Cell

• Plant Cell: Large, fixed rectangular shape, cell wall present, nucleus on one side of the cell, fewer mitochondria, no centrosomes, one large central vacuole.
• Animal Cell: Small, irregular or round shape, no cell wall, nucleus in the center, more mitochondria, centrosomes present, many small vacuoles.

Carbohydrates

• Monosaccharide: simple sugars, the basic building blocks of carbohydrates. Examples include glucose, fructose, and galactose.
• Disaccharide: condensation products of two monosaccharide units. Examples include sucrose, lactose, and maltose.
• Polysaccharide: complex carbohydrates, consisting of many monosaccharide units linked together. examples include starch, glycogen, and cellulose.
• Chitin: Found in the exoskeletons of arthropods (like insects and crustaceans) and in the cell walls of fungi.

Nucleic Acids

• Nucleic Acids: Molecules that store information for cellular growth and reproduction.
• Nucleotide consists of a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar, and phosphate.

Proteins

• Proteins: Large molecules consisting of amino acids, essential for proper body function.
• Amino Acids: The building blocks of proteins, 20 amino acids are found in proteins, 10 of which are essential for humans.

Lipids

• Lipids: A heterogeneous group of naturally occurring organic compounds grouped by their common solubility properties.
• Properties of lipids: Insoluble in water, soluble in aprotic organic solvents like diethyl ether, chloroform, and amphipathic in nature.

Function of Lipids

• Energy storage: Triglycerides store energy efficiently.
• Structural components: Phospholipids form cell membranes.
• Hormones: Steroid hormones like estrogen and testosterone are lipids.
• Insulation: Fat layers provide insulation.
• Protection: Lipids protect organs and tissues.

Types of Transport Processes

• Diffusion: The movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.
• Osmosis: The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane.
• Active Transport: The movement of molecules against their concentration gradient, requiring energy.
• Passive Transport: The movement of molecules down their concentration gradient, not requiring energy.
• Facilitated Diffusion: The movement of molecules across a membrane with the assistance of a transport protein.

Hypertonic vs Isotonic vs Hypotonic Solutions

• Hypertonic: A solution with a higher solute concentration than the cell, causing water to move out of the cell and the cell to shrink.
• Isotonic: A solution with the same solute concentration as the cell, resulting in no net movement of water.
• Hypotonic: A solution with a lower solute concentration than the cell, causing water to move into the cell and the cell to swell.

Laboratory Equipment

• Burets are used to add precise volumes of liquid, with accuracy to the nearest 0.01 mL.
• Watch glasses are used for holding small samples or covering beakers or evaporating dishes.
• Wire gauze supports beakers while they are heated by Bunsen burners.
• Clay triangles are used with a ring stand to support a funnel, crucible, or evaporating dish.
• Balances are used to determine the mass of a reagent or object.

Microscopy

• Base holds up the microscope.
• Light source directs ambient light through the stage to illuminate the specimen.
• Stage serves as a flat platform to support the specimen.
• Arm connects the head to the base.

Branches of Biology

• Botany studies plants including their structure, growth, reproduction and taxonomy.
• Zoology studies animals, including their behavior, physiology, evolution, and classification.
• Microbiology focuses on microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protozoa.
• Genetics explores heredity, genes, and genetic variation in organisms.
• Ecology investigates the interactions between organisms and their environments, including ecosystems and conservation biology.

Animal Classification

• Aves (birds) possess feathers, wings, hollow bones, and are warm-blooded.
• Reptilia (reptiles) have scaly skin, are cold-blooded, and lay eggs.
• Amphibia (amphibians) have moist skin, can live on land and in water, and are cold-blooded.
• Actinopterygii (ray-finned fish) have a bony skeleton, thin, bony scales.
• Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fish) have a cartilaginous skeleton and tough skin.

Phyla Overview

• Porifera (sponges) are simple multicellular animals without true tissues, they are filter feeders.
• Cnidaria (jellyfish) are radially symmetrical, have stinging cells and a gastrovascular cavity.
• Insecta (insects) have six legs, three body segments, and usually wings.
• Arachnida (spiders) have eight legs and two body segments.
• Crustacea (crustaceans) have jointed legs, a hard exoskeleton, and gills.
• Platyhelminthes (flatworms) have bilateral symmetry, are acoelomate, and are parasitic or free-living.
• Mollusca (molluscs) have diverse body plans, a mantle, and often a shell.

Carbohydrates

• Carbohydrate oxidation provides energy.
• Carbohydrate storage in the form of glycogen provides a short-term energy reserve.
• Carbohydrates supply carbon atoms for the synthesis of other biochemical substances.
• Carbohydrates form part of the structural framework of DNA and RNA molecules.
• Monosaccharides are simple sugars containing a single polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone unit. They cannot be broken down further by hydrolysis.
• Polysaccharides consist of many monosaccharide units covalently bonded. They are polymers that can contain hundreds to millions of monosaccharide units.

Lipids

• Lipids serve as storage forms of energy (triglycerides).
• Lipids are structural components of biomembranes (phospholipids and cholesterol).
• They act as metabolic regulators (steroid hormones).
• Lipids act as surfactants, detergents, and emulsifying agents (amphipathic lipids).
• They act as electric insulators in neurons.
• Lipids provide insulation against changes in external temperature.
• They give shape and contour to the body.
• Lipids protect internal organs by providing cushioning.
• Lipids help in the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K).

Saturated and Unsaturated Fatty Acids

• Saturated fatty acids: Often associated with bad cholesterol (low-density lipoprotein), solid at room temperature.
• Unsaturated fatty acids: Often associated with good cholesterol (high-density lipoprotein), liquid at room temperature.

Taxonomy

• Taxonomy is the science of naming and classifying things.
• In biology, it involves organizing species into different groups.

Homologous vs. Analogous Structures

• Homologous structures are similar structures in different species that share a common ancestor.
• Analogous structures are structures in different species that have similar functions but evolved independently.

The Scientific Method

• Observation: Notice a phenomenon or problem.
• Question: Formulate a specific, testable question based on the observation.
• Hypothesis: Make an educated guess about the answer to the question.
• Experiment: Design and conduct an experiment to test the hypothesis.
• Data Collection: Collect data from the experiment.
• Analysis: Analyze the data to determine if it supports or refutes the hypothesis.
• Conclusion: Draw a conclusion based on the analysis.

Independent and Dependent Variables

• Independent variable: The variable manipulated or changed in an experiment. It is the cause or treatment.
• Dependent variable: The variable measured to see if it changes as a result of the independent variable. It is the effect or outcome.

This quiz covers key laboratory equipment used in scientific practices, such as burets, balances, and watch glasses. It also explores various branches of biology, including botany, zoology, and microbiology. Test your knowledge on these fundamental concepts in science.