PRELIM REVIEWER MEOW EDITION Ver 2024.pdf

PRELIM EXAM REVIEWER – BIOLOGY LEC/LAB By Team Meow meow = ( Halimeow and 3 headed creature) Droppers are for addition of LABORATORY RULES...

PRELIM EXAM REVIEWER – BIOLOGY LEC/LAB By Team Meow meow = ( Halimeow and 3 headed creature) Droppers are for addition of LABORATORY RULES liquids drop by drop 1. Wear appropriate PPE (Personal Protective Equipment) at all times. 2. Access the laboratory only if authorized. Glass Funnels are for funneling 3. Read and follow MSDS for chemicals. liquids from one container to 4. Label all containers accurately. another or for filtering when 5. Use equipment you're trained to operate. equipped with filter paper. 6. Inspect equipment for damage before use. Graduated Cylinders are for 7. Know emergency procedures and locations of safety measurement of an amount of equipment. liquid. The volume of liquid can 8. Dispose of hazardous waste properly. be estimated to the nearest 0.1 9. Maintain clean and organized workspaces. mL with practice 10. Wash hands before and after lab work. Erlenmeyer Flasks are useful to 11. Keep clear and accurate records. contain reactions or to hold 12. Attend safety training sessions. liquid samples. They are also 13. Report accidents or unsafe conditions. useful to catch filtrates. 14. Store chemicals by compatibility. Ring stand with Rings are for 15. Be respectful and considerate of colleagues and their holding pieces of glassware in workspaces. place. LABORATORY EQUIPMENT Test Tubes are for holding small Drawing Uses samples or for containing Beakers are useful as a reaction container or to hold liquid or solid samples. They are also Test tube holders are for holding used to catch liquids from test tubes when tubes should titrations and filtrates from not be touched filtering operations. Tongs are similar in function to Bunsen Burners are sources of forceps but are useful for heat. larger items. Watch glasses are for holding small samples or for Burets are for addition of a covering beakers or evaporating precise volume of liquid. The dishes. volume of liquid added can be Wire Gauze on a ring supports determined to the nearest 0.01 beakers to be heated by mL with practice Bunsen burners Clay Triangles are placed on a ring attached to a ring stand as a Balances are used to determine the mass of a reagent or object. support for a funnel, crucible, or evaporating dish.  PARTS OF THE MICROSCOPE Branches of biology Botany: -Study of plants, their structure, growth, reproduction, and taxonomy. Zoology:-Study of animals, including their behavior, physiology, evolution, and classification. Parts Function Microbiology:-Study of microorganisms, including Base Holds up microscope bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protozoa. Light directs ambient light up through the hole in Genetics:-Study of heredity, genes, and genetic source the stage and illuminates specimen variation in organisms. microscope flat platform that supports the stage Ecology:-Study of interactions between organisms stage and their environments, including ecosystems and microscope structural element connects the head to the conservation biology. arm base Anatomy:-Study of the structure and organization of fine fine tunes the focus of the things you are organisms. adjustment studying Physiology:-Study of the functioning and mechanisms knob Moves the stage slightly to sharpen the of living organisms. image Cell Biology-Study of cells, their structure, function, coarse moves the stage up and down for focusing and processes. adjustment Molecular Biology-Study of biological processes at knob the molecular level, including DNA, RNA, and eyepiece lens that you look through at the top of proteins. microscopes Entomology-Study of insects and their biology. microscope connects eyepieces to objective lenses Immunology-Study of the immune system and how it body tube responds to pathogens and foreign substances. Revolving the part where the objective lenses are Parasitology-Study of parasites and their interactions nose piece attached with host organisms. stage clip used to hold slide in place Neurobiology-Study of the nervous system and the brain's structure and function. To compute the magnification of a microscope, you can use Taxonomy: Science of classifying and naming the following simple formula: organisms based on their characteristics and evolutionary relationships. Magnification (M) = Magnifying Power of the Objective Lens × Magnifying Power of the Eyepiece (or Ocular Lens)  Levels of organization PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC Levels of Biological Organization Biological organization is a hierarchical system that ranges from the smallest units of life to the entire biosphere. Here are the main levels: Atom: The smallest unit of matter that retains the properties of a particular element. Molecule: A group of atoms bonded together. Organelle: A specialized structure within a cell that performs a specific function. Cell: The basic unit of life. Tissue: A group of cells with a similar structure and function. Organ: A group of tissues working together to perform a specific function. Organ System: A group of organs working together to perform a vital function. Organism: A living individual. Population: A group of organisms of the same species living in the same area. Community: All of the populations of organisms living in a particular area. Ecosystem: A community of organisms and their physical environment. (biotic and abiotic) Biosphere: The part of Earth that supports life. PARTS OF THE CELLS Nucleus: Controls cell activities, houses genetic material (DNA). Mitochondria: Produce energy through cellular respiration. Ribosomes: Sites of protein synthesis. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Network of membranes involved in protein synthesis and lipid production. Easy way to remember everything is better and present in Golgi Apparatus: Packages and modifies proteins for eukaryotic cell but the only thing is better for the prokaryotic transport. is the cell wall. Lysosomes: Contain enzymes that break down cellular waste. The 7 characteristics of Living Things Cytoskeleton: Provides structural support and aids in cell Movement – Animals move to find food and keep movement. away from predators, plants move to face the light Cell Membrane: Controls the movement of substances in Reproduction – the ability to produce offspring to and out of the cell. keep the species in existence Vacuoles: Storage organelles (especially large in plant Sensitivity – responding and reacting to the cells). environment Chloroplasts (plant cells): Convert sunlight into energy Nutrition – Animals need food for respiration, plants through photosynthesis. need minerals from the soil Nucleolus: Region within the nucleus involved in Excretion – Getting rid of waste ribosome production. Respiration – Turning food into energy Cytosol: Jelly-like substance that fills the cell. Growth – Growing larger and stronger 🡪 becoming Centrioles: Involved in cell division. (organizing adult size microtubules)  ANIMAL VS PLANT CELL TYPES OF TRANSPORT PROCESS PLANT CELL ANIMAL CELL Plant cell is large and has Animal cell is small and a fixed rectangular shape irregular or round in shape Cell wall Cell wall absent The nucleus lies on one The nucleus lies in the side of the cell center Mitochondria are present Mitochondria are present in fewer numbers in large numbers Centrosomes are absent Centrosomes are present One large central vacuole Many small vacuoles are is present. present Animal cell HYPERTONIC VS ISOTONIC VS HYPOTONIC SOLUTION Diffusion experiment – As the temperature increases, the diffusivity increases. Therefore, the water molecules of the hot water have more kinetic energy than the cold ones, and they oscillate more rapidly. CARBOHYDRATE Functions of Carbohydrates in the Human Body Carbohydrates are organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. Carbohydrate oxidation - provides energy Carbohydrate storage, in the form of glycogen, provides a short-term energy reserve Carbohydrates supply carbon atoms for the synthesis of other biochemical substances (proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids) Carbohydrates form part of the structural framework of DNA and RNA molecules  Monosaccharide POLYSACCHARIDES Contain single polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone unit Contains many monosaccharide units covalently They can’t be broken down into simpler substances bonded by hydrolysis (reaction with water) reactions Polymers: May contain a few 100s to > million monosaccharide units Common polysaccharides Starch: Found in plants, it serves as a storage form of energy, consisting of glucose molecules linked together in long chains. Glycogen: Found in animals, especially in the liver and muscles, it is a storage polysaccharide similar to starch, used for storing energy. Cellulose: A structural polysaccharide in plant cell Glucose is the main sugar in the body walls, It provides rigidity and support to plant cells Galactose is found in milk and is a dietary fiber for animals. Humans cant digest Fructose is found in fruits and sweetest sugar this Chitin: Found in the exoskeletons of arthropods (such How to test monosaccharide as insects and crustaceans), as well as in the cell walls Benedict test is used to test for simple carbohydrates. of fungi. Results: How to test Starch NUCLEIC ACIDS ⮚ Are molecules that store information for cellular growth and reproduction DISACCHARIDE ⮚ Nucleotide consists of a nitrogenous base, a pentose ⮚ are condensation products of two monosaccharide sugar and phosphate units;  PROTEIN Biuret test – used for detecting the presence of peptide bonds. In ⮚ Proteins are large molecules consisting of amino acids the presence of peptides which our body need to function properly o No change = no peptide o Violet = there is a peptide The 20 AMINO ACIDS and 10 are essentials LIPID Lipids: a heterogeneous class of naturally occurring organic compounds classified together on the basis of common solubility properties Properties of lipids – insoluble in water, – soluble in aprotic organic solvents including diethyl ether, chloroform – Amphipathic in nature Function of lipid: 1. Storage form of energy (triglycerides) 2. Structural components of biomembranes (phospholipids and cholesterol) 3. Metabolic regulators (steroid hormones steroids like estrogen and testosterone and prostaglandins) 4. Act as surfactants, detergents and emulsifying agents (amphipathic lipids) 5. Act as electric insulators in neurons 6. Provide insulation against changes in external temperature 7. Give shape and contour to the body 8. Protect internal organs by providing a cushioning effect 9. Help in absorption of fat soluble vitamins (A, D, E and K)  Summary Saturated fatty acids: Unsaturated fatty acids Bad cholesterol; Good cholesterol ( (low density high density What is Taxonomy? lipoprotein) lipoprotein) Taxonomy is the science of naming and classifying things Solid at room Liquid at room In biology this refers to organizing species into different temperature temperature groups 1. Triglycerides: The most common type of dietary fat, consisting of three fatty acid molecules attached to a glycerol molecule. They serve as energy storage molecules in the body. 2. Phospholipids: Lipids with two fatty acid molecules and a phosphate group attached to glycerol. They are major components of cell membranes, where they Homologous vs Analogous form a lipid bilayer. 3. Steroids: Lipids with a distinctive four-ring structure. Examples include cholesterol, 4. Waxes: Long-chain fatty acids combined with long- chain alcohols or other hydrophobic molecules. They serve as waterproofing and protective coatings in organisms, such as on plant leaves or in the ears of mammals. 5. Sphingolipids:. They are important components of cell membranes and are involved in cell signaling. 6. Lipoproteins: Complexes of lipids and proteins that transport lipids in the bloodstream. Examples include low-density lipoproteins (LDL) and high-density lipoproteins (HDL), which are involved in cholesterol transport. 7. Eicosanoids: Signaling molecules derived from fatty acids, including prostaglandins and leukotrienes, which are involved in inflammation and various physiological processes.  Different Type of Domain Insects, spiders, crustaceans, jointed appendages, Insects, spiders, Arthropoda exoskeleton. crabs Starfish, sea urchins, radial Starfish, sea symmetry, spiny skin, water urchins, sea Echinodermata vascular system. cucumbers Animals with a notochord, Fish, amphibians, dorsal nerve cord, pharyngeal reptiles, birds, Chordata slits, and a post-anal tail. mammals Common types of Class Class Characteristics Examples 5 kingdoms Mammals, hair or fur, mammary glands, three middle ear bones, four-chambered Humans, dogs, Mammalia heart. cats, whales Eagles, Birds, feathers, wings, hollow sparrows, Aves bones, warm-blooded. penguins Reptiles, scaly skin, cold- Snakes, lizards, Reptilia blooded, lay eggs. turtles Amphibians, moist skin, can live on land and in water, cold- Frogs, toads, Amphibia blooded. salamanders Ray-finned fish, bony skeleton, Salmon, Common types of Phylum Actinopterygii thin, bony scales. goldfish, tuna Cartilaginous fish, cartilaginous Sharks, rays, Chondrichthyes skeleton, tough skin. skates Phylum Characteristics Examples Insects, six legs, three body Butterflies, Sponges, simple multicellular Insecta segments, wings (usually). beetles, ants animals without true tissues, Bath sponges, Porifera filter feeders. glass sponges Spiders, ticks, scorpions, eight Spiders, ticks, Arachnida legs, two body segments. scorpions Jellyfish, corals, anemones, Jellyfish, sea radial symmetry, stinging anemones, coral Crustaceans, jointed legs, hard Crabs, lobsters, Cnidaria cells, gastrovascular cavity. reefs Crustacea exoskeleton, gills. shrimp Flatworms, bilateral Snails, clams, octopuses, diverse symmetry, acoelomate, Tapeworms, body plans, mantle, shell (often Snails, clams, Platyhelminthes parasitic or free-living. planarians Mollusca present). squids Roundworms, unsegmented body, pseudocoelomate, Ascaris, Nematoda many parasitic. hookworms Segmented worms, bilateral symmetry, true coelomate, Earthworms, Annelida closed circulatory system. leeches Snails, clams, octopuses, diverse body plans, mantle, Snails, clams, Mollusca shell (often present). squids  Steps of the Scientific Method Observation: Notice a phenomenon or problem. Question: Formulate a specific, testable question based on your observation. Hypothesis: Make an educated guess about the answer to your question. Experiment: Design and conduct an experiment to test your hypothesis. Data Collection: Collect data from your experiment. Analysis: Analyze the data to determine if it supports or refutes your hypothesis. Conclusion: Draw a conclusion based on your analysis. Independent and Dependent Variables  Independent Variable: The variable that you manipulate or change in an experiment. It is the cause or treatment.  Dependent Variable: The variable that you measure to see if it changes as a result of the independent variable. It is the effect or outcome. Example: Question: Does studying for longer hours improve exam scores?  Independent Variable: Hours of studying  Dependent Variable: Exam scores Meme time: