Relationships and processes within school

• Relationships and processes within schools include teacher/pupil relationships, pupil identities and subcultures, the hidden curriculum, and the organization of teaching and learning.

Labelling Theory

• Labelling theory, developed by Howard Becker, examines how teachers' labels affect pupils' ability, potential, or behavior.
• Labels can be positive or negative, leading to a self-fulfilling prophecy, influencing a student's achievement.
• The theory is interactionist and suggests that labels are not always internalized; students can reject them, leading to a self-refuting prophecy.
• A student labeled as a failure may internalize and fail, or become determined to prove the teacher wrong.

Rosenthal and Jacobson: "Pygmalion in the Classroom" (1965)

• This study explored the impact of labelling in elementary schools in the USA.
• Teachers were given randomly generated results suggesting some students were "spurters," while others were in a control group.
• Pupils identified as "spurters" showed greater development than the control group, supporting the self-fulfilling prophecy.
• Ethical concerns exist regarding experimenting on children and interfering with their education in this manner.
• Teachers often have an "ideal pupil" model, which can lead to the "halo effect," where positively labeled students receive more lenient treatment.

Triage in Schools

• Gilborn and Youdell argue that schools categorize pupils into those who will always succeed, hopeless cases, and borderline cases needing extra support.
• School triage is linked to the pressure of maintaining league table positions and the A*-C rate.
• Labelling can directly impact pupils' educational experiences and outcomes.

Evaluating Labelling Theory

• It's difficult to prove how teachers label pupils, how much pupils realize the labels, and the impact those labels have.
• Interactionist sociologists do not focus on structural reasons for labelling.
• Working-class pupils and pupils from minority-ethnic groups are more likely to receive negative labels.
• Mirza found labeling motivated black girls to succeed, showing a possible self-refuting prophecy.

Pupil Subcultures

• Paul Willis studied working-class schoolboys ("the Lads") and their attitudes towards school.
• "The Lads" subverted school values, valuing "mucking about" over academic success.
• They saw school as being for middle-class kids and aimed to get through it until they could leave and get a job.
• Pro-school subcultures involve students who support the school's ethos, rules, and principles, valuing hard work and academic success.
• Some subcultures, like those identified by Mirza and Mac an Ghaill, are anti-school in terms of the institution but pro-education.

Evaluating Studies of Pupil Subcultures

• Post-modernists view subcultures as cultural identity expressions rather than linked to achievement or attitudes, defined more by music or fashion preferences.
• Willis studied subcultures to understand how the education system reproduces class inequalities.

Pupil Identities

• Pupil identities are complex, influenced by factors inside and outside school, with increasing matter of choice
• Identities are shaped by ethnicity, gender, social class, and interactions with peers and teachers.
• Postmodernists argue that identity is a matter of choice, influenced by consumption patterns like music or fashion.

The Hidden Curriculum

• The hidden curriculum involves the subtle teaching of norms and values in schools.
• Functionalists see it as necessary for society to function, while conflict theorists view it as teaching people to accept capitalism or patriarchy.
• This includes learning manners, respecting authority, and understanding hierarchy.

Setting, Streaming and Banding

• Setting places students into groups based on ability, but it can vary by subject.
• Streaming splits pupils into groups based on overall ability across all subjects.
• Banding groups pupils of similar academic ability together.
• Critics argue that banding and streaming show selection by academic ability still exists in comprehensive schools.
• Being placed in a low set can cause students to underperform or try hard to move into a higher set.
• Neutral names for streams can disguise banding.

Links to Core Themes

• The topic links to culture and identity, with schools having potential for diverse subcultures and processes within schools and relationships with teachers and peers further shaping students' identities.
• Stratification is relevant, adding detail to "in-school factors".