Lab Safety, Measurements and Conversions

• Laboratory safety rules include familiarity with laboratory rules, regulations, and procedures, such as proper laboratory attire, eating and drinking guidelines, and knowing the location of laboratory emergency equipment.
• Properly dispose of biohazard waste.

Scientific Tools and Techniques

• SI units can be converted between metric and US customary units.
• The metric system is based on multiples of 10
• Each successive unit is 1/10th of the previous larger unit and 10 times the next smallest unit.
• Means or averages calculation: Add up all the numbers in the set, then divide by the total number of numbers in the set.
• Length is a measurement of distance.
• The basic unit of length is the meter (m).
• Linear measurements include length, width, distance, and diameter.
• Instruments used to measure length include rulers and measuring tapes.
• Mass is the amount of matter in an object.
• The basic unit of mass is the gram (g).
• Instruments used to measure mass include balances and scales.
• Volume is the space occupied by a liquid or an object.
• The basic unit of liquid volume is the liter (L).
• Instruments used to measure volume include graduated cylinders and graduated pipettes.
• Meniscus: The curved surface in a graduated cylinder/pipette. Always read the bottom of the meniscus at eye level.
• Temperature is a measure of how hot or cold something is.
• The basic unit of temperature is Kelvin (K).
• A thermometer is an instrument used to measure mass
• Diameter at breast height (DBH) is a standard measurement of a tree diameter.
• Circumference is divided by pi (3.14) to calculate.
• Accuracy is how closely a measurement agrees with a true or accepted value, whereas precision is how closely repeated measurements agree with each other and is a measure of reproducibility.

Scientific Investigation and Writing

• Scientific investigation: step-by-step procedure using observations and experiments to answer a question or solve a problem.
• Steps of scientific investigation: Observation, Question, Literature Review, Hypothesis, Prediction, Experiment, Conclusion.
• Observation: Observing a phenomenon, aspect of an organism, or discovery of a problem.
• Observations come from examining the literature on a topic.
• Question: A question posed about the observation that is often simple, testable, and in the form of how, what, or why.
• Literature Review: Background research to see if the question has been asked before and gather information.
• It involves reading what other scientists in the field have already published in scientific journals.
• Hypotheses: Potential explanations based on known information which can be general or scientific.
• Prediction: A result that will occur if the hypothesis is correct, generally in the form of an "if/then" statement.
• Experiment: Designed and conducted to test the hypothesis and has three kinds of variables (also called factors or conditions).
• Conclusion: The final step to interpret and discuss the results and determine whether the hypothesis is accepted (results match predictions) or rejected (results didn't match predictions).
• Limitations of the scientific method: human error, deliberately falsifying results, and bias.
• Factors important in experimental design include replication, sample size, and data presentation.
• Independent variable: treatment that is changed or manipulated.
• Dependent variable: The factor that is observed, measured, or affected.
• Controlled variable: Factors that are kept the same for all groups.
• Continuous variable: measured quantitatively and uses a logical order of numbers (e.g., temperature, length).
• Discrete variable: measured qualitatively and uses categories or an unordered set of numbers (e.g., color, shape).
• Experimental group: The group treated with the independent variable.
• Control group: The group where the independent variable is standardized.
• Replication: An experiment must be repeated several times to ensure that the results are reliable and not due to chance.
• Greater sample size makes the results more accurate
• It is important to develop reasonable conclusions based on collected data.
• Ultraviolet (UV) radiation emitted from the sun is divided into UV-A (315-400 nm), UV-B (280-315 nm), and UV-C (100-280 nm).
• Fortunately, the ozone layer absorbs all of the UV-C and about 90% of the UV-B.
• Sunscreen lotions and sprays reduce exposure to harmful UV rays that elevate chances of skin cancer.
• SPF stands for Sun Protection Factor: a rating system, regulated by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), that specifies the level of protection.
• The higher the SPF, the higher the protection against UV-B.
• A sunscreen that provides protection against UV-B and UV-A is essential.
• Requirements manufacturers must demonstrate their sunscreens provide equal protection against UV-B and UV-A radiation to be labeled "broad spectrum" with an SPF of 15 or greater
• Parts of a scientific paper: Title, Authors, Keywords, Abstract, Introduction, Material and Methods, Results, Discussion, Conclusion, Acknowledgements, References Title: a one-sentence description of the content of the paper that should include the species studied
• Authors: Scientists that contributed most to the research
• Keywords: Words describing the paper that are assigned by the author
• Abstract: A one-paragraph summary of the most important information of the entire study
• Introduction: Provides information to understand the study and explain the need

Allelopathy

• Allelopathy: Plants that produce and release chemicals into the environment that have harmful effects on the growth and development of neighboring plants.
• Plant competition: When plants compete for resources like water, nutrients, and light when the combined demand exceeds the supply
• Effects organisms have on each other when they live in the same community, which can affect population sizes, the health of ecosystems, and the evolution of species
• When juglone, a compound present in the leaves, roots, stems, and fruit hulls, is released into the air or soil, it becomes an allelochemical that is highly toxic and inhibits seed germination.
• Allelochemicals are chemicals released in allelopathy and when used as bioherbicides, they can be disadvantageous by being narrow spectrum, environmentally concerning, stability issues, difficult to formulate and apply.
• Essential oils are the aromatic plants producing volatile secondary compounds
• Allelopathy is used to eliminate or suppress weeds by using allelochemicals as natural herbicides
• Alkaloids: Alkaline nitrogen-containing compounds are toxic to other organisms and often have pharmacological effects
• Caffeine: Stimulant found in several plants like coffee, tea, and chocolate
• Terpenes: One of the largest and most varied groups of plant chemicals and include many of the essential oils
• Phenols: Class of compounds that contain a hydroxyl group bonded to an aromatic benzene ring

Building Green

• Building Green creates environmentally and user-friendly buildings that promotes native species, reduces greenhouse gas emissions and the amount of harmful chemicals needed.
• Sustainability is the ability of a practice to use resources that meet present and future human requirements without harming the environment
• LEED certification earns points by meeting specific prerequisites and credits across various categories with points determining the level
• The U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC) ensures that buildings and communities are designed, constructed, operated, and maintained using sustainable practices.
• Formulas for energy composition, energy use, annual energy use, and annual cost are provided.
• Sustainable design principles in construction should focus on energy efficiency, renewable energy sources, environmentally friendly building materials, water conservation, and the minimizing ecological disruption.
• Environmentally sustainable practices conserve natural resources, reduce pollution, protect ecosystems, and ensure that future generations have access to clean air, water, and other vital resources
• One can reduce their impact on the environment by reducing consumption, waste, and carbon footprint
• Alternatives to include materials like glass, metal, paper, and bioplastics derived from renewable resources
• Societal actions include reducing single-use plastics, enhancing recycling systems, supporting sustainable product designs, and implementing policies that encourage responsible production and consumption.
• Minimize plastic use, participate in recycling programs, support eco-friendly products, and engage in community clean-up efforts.
• Bioplastics are produced from renewable resources offering alternative to fossil fuel-based plastics whose benefits include reduced dependence on fossil fuels, lower greenhouse gas emissions, and potential biodegradability
• Composting bioplastics involves breaking them down into natural substances under controlled conditions with industry standards, while plastics became popular as a go-to option for its versatility, durability, and lightweight nature.
• Marine animals can ingest plastic debris, by reducing single-use plastics through reusable products.

Tools/ Instruments Used During The Lab Course

• Measuring tape: flexible ruler used to measure length, width, or circumference.
• Measuring wheel: with a handle and a counter that measures distance as it rolls.
• Balances: tools to measure the mass of objects with high precision.
• Thermometers: to measure temperature, typically using mercury, alcohol, or digital sensors.
• Forceps: tweezer-like tools for gripping and handling small objects.
• Serological pipets: for measuring and transferring liquid volumes.
• Serological pipets pumps: Devices that attach to serological pipettes to facilitate liquid transfer by suction.
• Transfer pipets: Disposable plastic pipettes used to transfer small amounts of liquid.
• Graduated cylinders: With volume markings for measuring liquids.
• Rulers: Marked with units (e.g., centimeters and inches) to measure length or distance
• Petri dishes: For culturing bacteria, fungi, or small organisms.
• Parafilm: A flexible, stretchable sealing film made of wax and polyolefin to seal in containers in order to prevent contamination
• Fixed pipettes: Precision pipettes that dispense a fixed volume of liquid.
• Pipette tips: Disposable plastic tips that attach to pipettes to dispense liquids for accurate liquid measurements in pipetting.
• UV meter: measures ultraviolet (UV) radiation levels.
• Power meter: measures electrical power, typically in watts (W).