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Questions and Answers
Where are kidney stones typically located?
What is a common location where ureteric stones are likely to lodge?
In which part of the urinary tract are ureteric stones formed?
What is the connecting tube between the kidneys and the bladder where ureteric stones are formed?
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Where do kidney stones typically form?
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What is another area of constriction where ureteric stones are likely to lodge?
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What is the last area of constriction where ureteric stones are likely to lodge?
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What is not a location where kidney stones are typically formed?
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What is the term that describes the study of an organism's defense system in both health and disease?
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Which type of immunity is mediated by antibodies?
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What is the primary function of CD4 helper T cells?
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Which type of receptor is used by B cells to recognize antigens?
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What is the main function of IgE antibodies?
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Which type of immunity is acquired through vaccination or infection?
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What is the term that describes the defense system that protects us against illness and disease?
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Which type of cytokine is involved in regulating immune responses?
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What is the primary function of the lymph system?
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What is the function of the lymph system in regards to tissue fluids?
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What is a characteristic of a healthy immune system?
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What is the role of the lymph system in regards to fat absorption?
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What is a function of the lymph system in regards to the body's environment?
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What is a function of the lymph system in regards to the body's chemical substances?
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What is the primary function of the immune system?
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What type of invaders does the immune system seek out to destroy?
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What is shown in Figure 1-6 in Blood Composition?
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What is the main difference between the Innate and Adaptive Immune Responses?
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What is the process called when immune cells engulf and digest foreign substances?
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What are the key characteristics of inflammation?
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What is the function of activated cells of the immune system?
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What is the development of the immune system referred to?
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What is the primary function of the third line of host defenses?
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What is the term for the process by which cells engulf and digest foreign particles and microorganisms?
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What is the main difference between the first and second lines of host defenses?
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What is the term for the proteins produced by B cells in response to the presence of pathogens?
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What is the primary function of the second line of host defenses?
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What is the term for the process by which the body responds to tissue damage or infection?
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What are the key components of the third line of host defenses?
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What is the main difference between humoral and cell-mediated immunity?
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What is the function of co-stimulators in the immune response?
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What is the term for any agent capable of triggering an immune response?
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What is the primary function of CD4 effector cells?
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What is the term for the region on an antigen that binds to an antibody or T-cell receptor?
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What is the primary function of CD8 effector cells?
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What is the role of 'danger signals' in the immune response?
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What is the difference between natural active and artificial active immunity?
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What is the role of cytokines IL-12, IL-1, and IL-6 in the immune response?
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Study Notes
Location of Stones
- Kidney stones are located within the kidney, either in the renal pelvis or the calyces.
- Ureteric stones are located in the ureters, which are the tubes that connect the kidneys to the bladder.
Areas of Constriction for Ureteric Stones
- Ureteric stones get lodged in 3 areas of constriction:
- Ureteropelvic Junction
- Where the ureter crosses over the common iliac vessels
- Ureterovesical Junction
Immunity and the Immune Responses
- The immune system is the defense system that protects us against illness and diseases.
- Immunology is the study of an organism's defense system in both health and disease.
Characteristics of Innate and Adaptive Immune Responses
- Innate immune response:
- Recognizes and responds to general patterns of pathogens
- Provides immediate, non-specific defense
- Includes physical barriers, phagocytosis, and inflammation
- Adaptive immune response:
- Recognizes and responds to specific pathogens
- Provides specific, long-term defense
- Involves activation of immune cells and production of antibodies
Innate Immune Response
- Phagocytosis:
- Process by which immune cells engulf and digest foreign particles and bacteria
- Major steps: recognition, attachment, ingestion, and digestion
- Inflammation:
- Response to tissue damage or infection
- Characterized by pain, redness, swelling, and immobility
- Key characteristics: heat, pain, redness, swelling, and loss of function
Adaptive Immune Response
- Activation of 3rd line of immune defense:
- Involves recognition of "danger signals" by the innate immune response
- Leads to activation of immune cells and production of antibodies
- Antigen:
- Any agent capable of triggering an immune response
- Examples: proteins, carbohydrates, and other molecules
- Epitope:
- Region of an antigen that binds to an antibody or T-cell receptor
Antibody Production
- Major steps in B-cell activation leading to antibody production:
- Activation of B-cells by antigens
- Proliferation and differentiation of B-cells into plasma cells
- Production of antibodies by plasma cells
- Primary and secondary antibody responses:
- Primary response: initial response to an antigen
- Secondary response: subsequent responses to the same antigen, resulting in faster and stronger responses
Cell-Mediated Immunity
- Major steps in CD4 T cell activation leading to CD4 effector cell functions:
- Activation of CD4 T cells by antigens
- Proliferation and differentiation of CD4 T cells into effector cells
- Production of cytokines and activation of other immune cells
- Major steps in CD8 T cell activation leading to CD8 effector cell functions:
- Activation of CD8 T cells by antigens
- Proliferation and differentiation of CD8 T cells into cytotoxic T cells
- Killing of infected cells and tumor cells
- Effector functions of CD4 and CD8 T cells:
- CD4 T cells: provide help to other immune cells, produce cytokines
- CD8 T cells: kill infected cells and tumor cells
Cytokines
- Functions and features of selected major cytokines:
- IL-12: involved in activation of immune cells and production of interferons
- IL-1: involved in inflammation and activation of immune cells
- IL-6: involved in inflammation and production of antibodies
Immunity and Vaccination
- Antibodies-mediated acquired immunities:
- Natural active immunity: results from natural exposure to an antigen
- Natural passive immunity: results from transfer of antibodies from mother to fetus
- Artificial active immunity: results from vaccination
- Artificial passive immunity: results from transfer of antibodies from one individual to another
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Description
Learn the differences between kidney stones and ureteric stones, including their locations and aspects. Take this quiz to understand the key distinctions between these two medical conditions.
