Kidney Anatomy and Physiology Quiz
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Questions and Answers

Which of the following imaging findings is most consistent with Medullary Sponge Kidney?

  • Multiple cysts of various sizes, which replace the normal renal parenchyma
  • Multiple non-communicating cysts with absence of renal parenchyma
  • Enlarged Kidneys bilaterally with hyperechoic parenchyma
  • Bilateral hyperechoic medullary pyramids with or without shadowing (correct)

    • A 70-year-old patient presents with multiple cysts of varying sizes in both kidneys. Which of the following conditions should the patient be evaluated for?

  • Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease (ADPKD) (correct)
  • Medullary Sponge Kidney
  • Multicystic Dysplastic Kidneys (MCDK)
  • Autosomal Recessive Polycystic Kidney Disease (ARPKD)

    • What is the most common cause of an abdominal mass in newborns?

  • Simple Renal Cysts
  • Medullary Sponge Kidney
  • Autosomal Recessive Polycystic Kidney Disease (ARPKD)
  • Multicystic Dysplastic Kidneys (MCDK) (correct)

    • Which of the following is NOT a common complication associated with Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease (ADPKD)?

    <p>Pulmonary hypoplasia (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following criteria is NOT used to differentiate between a simple renal cyst and a complex renal cyst on ultrasound?

    <p>Size of the cyst (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the most common location for simple renal cysts?

    <p>Cortical region (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What complication is commonly associated with ARPKD?

    <p>Portal hypertension (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a characteristic sonographic finding of a simple renal cyst?

    <p>Acoustic enhancement (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the typical age of onset for Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease (ADPKD)?

    <p>Fourth decade of life (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a feature of Multicystic Dysplastic Kidneys (MCDK)?

    <p>Associated with cystic dilatation of collecting tubules (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a possible differential diagnosis to consider when a patient presents with hyperechoic renal pyramids?

    <p>Renal Sinus Lipomatosis (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of renal cyst is also known as an atypical cyst?

    <p>Complex renal cyst (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe the condition where one kidney undergoes hypertrophy to compensate for the loss of function of the other kidney?

    <p>Compensatory hypertrophy (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a common finding in patients with Medullary Sponge Kidney?

    <p>Urinary stasis (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe a cyst located in the renal sinus?

    <p>Peripelvic cyst (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the ureters?

    <p>Convey urine from the kidneys to the bladder (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure exits posteriorly at the hilum of the kidney?

    <p>Ureter (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes the renal cortex?

    <p>It is the outer parenchyma from the base of pyramids to the capsule. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which embryonic kidney is non-functional and disappears around the 4th week of development?

    <p>Pronephros (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the typical size range for human kidneys?

    <p>9-12 cm in length (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which anatomical structure is located superior and medial to the right kidney?

    <p>Liver (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the renal fascia do?

    <p>Surrounds the kidney fat and adrenal gland (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In females, which ducts arise from mesonephros and eventually develop into the uterus and vagina?

    <p>Mullerian ducts (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a normal value for the resistive index (RI) in renal evaluation?

    <p>&lt; 0.7 (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which patient condition is most likely to result in increased renal arterial resistance?

    <p>Renal transplant rejection (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the Doppler evaluation technique, what is the maximum acceptable angle between the Doppler beam and the direction of flow?

    <p>60 degrees (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What anatomical abnormality is commonly associated with unilateral renal agenesis?

    <p>Seminal vesicle cysts (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following conditions does NOT typically result from renal duplication?

    <p>Renal atrophy (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the embryological origin of kidneys?

    <p>Pelvis (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What imaging finding is characteristic of a duplex kidney?

    <p>Complete central cortical break (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the case of crossed fused renal ectopia, where are two kidneys commonly located?

    <p>Both on one side of the abdomen (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What major complication can arise from ectopic kidneys?

    <p>Ureteral obstruction (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which syndrome is associated with renal agenesis and vertebral defects?

    <p>VACTERL syndrome (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the most common location for ectopic kidneys?

    <p>Pelvic region (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of appearance does a horseshoe kidney have?

    <p>Large 'U' shape (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a significant risk associated with hydronephrosis in congenital anomalies?

    <p>Ureteral obstruction (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the most common clinical manifestation of renal cell carcinoma?

    <p>Hematuria (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which condition are patients at an increased risk for developing renal cell carcinoma due to long-term dialysis?

    <p>Acquired cystic disease (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What imaging characteristic is often suggestive of a renal oncocytoma?

    <p>Central scar on CT (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following tumors is most commonly seen in childhood?

    <p>Wilms tumor (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key imaging sign that must be documented in renal mass evaluations?

    <p>Assessment of vascularity (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which group of tumors is characterized by the presence of fat cells intermixed with smooth muscle cells?

    <p>Angiomyolipoma (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What common feature is associated with both Von Hippel-Lindau disease and tuberous sclerosis?

    <p>Presence of renal cell carcinoma (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What condition presents with multiple cysts in kidneys as a result of long-term dialysis?

    <p>Acquired cystic disease (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the typical age range at which Von Hippel-Lindau disease usually presents symptoms?

    <p>2nd – 3rd decade of life (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which renal tumor is characterized by a likely homogeneous and well-circumscribed echogenic mass?

    <p>Angiomyolipoma (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of urothelial carcinoma accounts for about 10% of such cancers?

    <p>Squamous cell carcinoma (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the appearance of an infarcted area within 24 hours of arterial occlusion?

    <p>Hypoechoic (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The diagnosis of angiomyolipoma is confirmed by which imaging characteristic?

    <p>Detection of fat on CT (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which mechanism is responsible for prerenal failure in Acute Kidney Injury (AKI)?

    <p>Inadequate perfusion (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does a Wilms tumor commonly appear in imaging?

    <p>Large asymptomatic flank mass (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common sonographic finding in acute pyelonephritis?

    <p>Absence of sinus echoes (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor is most commonly associated with emphysematous pyelonephritis?

    <p>Diabetes mellitus (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the typical sonographic appearance of chronic pyelonephritis?

    <p>Small and hyperechoic (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What intervention is typically required for pyonephrosis?

    <p>Percutaneous or surgical drainage (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes acute focal bacterial nephritis?

    <p>Localized infection of renal parenchyma (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which bacterial type is most commonly involved in acute pyelonephritis?

    <p>Gram-negative bacilli (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which condition involves the presence of fungal masses in the renal system?

    <p>Fungal infections (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the outcome of acute kidney injury if not addressed?

    <p>End-stage renal disease (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a significant finding in patients with xanthogranulomatous pyelonephritis?

    <p>Severe hydronephrosis and abscesses (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect often complicates fungal infections in renal cases?

    <p>Post-surgical complications (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How is acute tubular necrosis classified in terms of renal failure?

    <p>Intrinsic renal failure (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is Hydronephrosis primarily characterized by?

    <p>Dilation of the renal collecting system (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which grade of Hydronephrosis is characterized by mild distortion of pelvocaliceal structures?

    <p>Grade I / Mild (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can chronic untreated Hydronephrosis lead to?

    <p>Hypertension and renal failure (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of calculi is primarily composed of uric acid?

    <p>Uric acid (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which symptom is commonly associated with Nephrolithiasis?

    <p>Acute flank pain (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Nephrocalcinosis refers to ___.

    <p>Calcium deposits in the renal parenchyma (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which condition is NOT a cause of intrinsic Hydronephrosis?

    <p>Prostate Cancer (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can spontaneous hematomas in the kidney result from?

    <p>Renal cell carcinoma (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is often the first imaging choice for assessing renal trauma?

    <p>Ultrasound (FAST) (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a type of nephrolithiasis?

    <p>Ammonium stones (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What indicates postrenal failure in kidney sonography?

    <p>Hydronephrosis (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following kidney conditions is irreversible?

    <p>Chronic Kidney Disease (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main symptom of Nephrolithiasis when severe?

    <p>Acute flank pain (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the most common cause of renal disease leading to kidney transplantation?

    <p>Diabetes (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes Grade III Hydronephrosis?

    <p>Severe dilation of the renal pelvis and calyces (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How is Urolithiasis primarily diagnosed?

    <p>CT scan and sonography (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a significant sonographic finding of acute transplant rejection?

    <p>Renal enlargement (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What describes the typical waveform of a normal renal artery during diastole?

    <p>Continuous forward flow (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common complication of renal trauma?

    <p>Hematoma formation (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which finding suggests renal artery stenosis?

    <p>Absent early systolic peak (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What symptom is commonly associated with renal artery thrombosis?

    <p>Acute flank pain (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common complication seen in CKD patients receiving hemodialysis?

    <p>Bilateral cystic disease (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following indicates transplant dysfunction based on the resistive index?

    <blockquote> <p>0.8 (B)</p> </blockquote> Signup and view all the answers

    What does a small, slow pulse characterize in renal evaluations?

    <p>Parvus Tardus (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What typically causes renal vein thrombosis?

    <p>Renal cell carcinoma (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the most common solid renal mass in adults?

    <p>Renal Cell Carcinoma (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which sonographic finding is associated with renal artery thrombosis?

    <p>Focal hypoechoic areas of infarct (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common treatment necessary for end-stage renal disease?

    <p>Dialysis or renal transplant (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the urinary bladder?

    <p>Act as a reservoir for urine storage (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What anatomical feature outlines the trigone region of the urinary bladder?

    <p>Three openings (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where are the ureters located in relation to the bladder?

    <p>Descend in retroperitoneum and enter posteroinferior portion of the bladder (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the average length of the male urethra?

    <p>15 to 20 cm (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What triggers the conscious desire to expel urine?

    <p>Activation of stretch receptors (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one possible consequence of bladder catheterization?

    <p>Development of a ledge at the bladder neck (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the constriction points of the ureters?

    <p>Ureteropelvic junction, iliac vessels, bladder junction (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the external urethral orifice in females characterized by?

    <p>An opening located anterior to the vagina (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do parasympathetic fibers play in micturition?

    <p>They trigger bladder contractions and relaxation of the internal sphincter (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the shape of the bladder when it is empty?

    <p>Round-edged tetrahedron (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the male urethra courses through the prostate?

    <p>Prostatic urethra (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What results in urinary incontinence?

    <p>Aging or nerve system trauma (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What anatomical structure is anterior to the female urethra?

    <p>Vagina (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the bladder's size and position change?

    <p>It varies according to the amount of urine it contains (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the bladder's relationship to the umbilicus?

    <p>It can extend upward towards the umbilicus when full (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following structures is described as the functional unit of the kidney?

    <p>Nephron (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the fibrous sheath that encloses the kidney and adrenal gland?

    <p>Gerota's fascia (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following renal arteries is typically difficult to obtain an ideal spectral waveform due to its perpendicular orientation to the Doppler sound beam?

    <p>Arcuate arteries (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the sonographic appearance of the renal medulla?

    <p>Anechoic (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the sonographic appearance of a junctional parenchymal defect?

    <p>Hyperechoic triangular area (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following renal variations is characterized by prominent renal cortical parenchyma extending between two medullary pyramids?

    <p>Hypertrophic column of Bertin (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a physiological function of the kidneys?

    <p>Producing insulin (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is considered a lab test used to evaluate renal function?

    <p>Urea Nitrogen (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the typical sonographic appearance of an extrarenal pelvis?

    <p>Cystic collection medial to the hilum (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is considered a normal sonographic finding of the renal pelvis?

    <p>Anechoic (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following renal arteries is the first branch of the main renal arteries?

    <p>Segmental arteries (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following factors may influence the serum creatinine threshold levels?

    <p>All of the above (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of visualizing the liver and spleen along with the kidneys during an ultrasound examination?

    <p>To compare the echo amplitude of the renal parenchyma with other structures (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a factor that can cause increased serum BUN?

    <p>Hypothyroidism (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following conditions is associated with a GFR < 15 mL/min?

    <p>End-stage kidney disease (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a common scanning tip for visualizing the renal arteries and veins?

    <p>Use a transverse approach to obtain a clearer image (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Kidney Anatomy and Physiology

    • Paired kidneys lie in the retroperitoneum, against deep back muscles, lateral to the vertebrae.
    • The right kidney is typically positioned slightly more inferior than the left.
    • Kidneys produce urine.
    • Paired ureters transport urine from the kidneys to the bladder.
    • The urinary bladder stores urine.
    • The urethra drains urine from the bladder to the body exterior.

    Kidney Embryology

    • Three pairs of kidneys form during development.
    • Pronephros (fore kidney): Non-functional and disappears by the 4th week.
    • Mesonephros (mid kidney): Partially functional in the first trimester (5th week). Gives rise to mesonephric tubules and ducts; Wolffian ducts in males (male genitalia); Mullerian ducts (paramesonephric ducts) in females (uterus, vagina)
    • Metanephros (permanent kidney): Interaction of uretic buds and mesenchyme (blastema) forms the functioning kidney.

    Kidney Size and Anatomy

    • Approximately the size of a clenched fist (9-12 cm long, 5-7 cm wide, 2-3 cm thick).

    • Kidneys should be within 2 cm of each other in length.

    • Layers :

      • Fibrous renal capsule: Inner layer, smooth giving the kidney its shiny appearance
      • Perirenal fat: Middle layer, adipose tissue, cushions and stabilizes
      • Renal fascia/Gerota's fascia: Outer layer; dense fibrous tissue encompassing the kidney, fat, and adrenal gland
      • Pararenal fat: Outermost (anterior and posterior); further stabilizes.

    • Hilum: The medial indentation where vessels and ureter enter/exit. The vein exits anteriorly, the artery enters between the vein and ureter, and the ureter exits posteriorly.

    Kidney Relational Anatomy

    • Right Kidney:

      • Superior-medial: Adrenal gland
      • Superior-lateral: Liver
      • Inferior: Right colic flexure
      • Medial: 2nd portion of the duodenum

    • Left Kidney:

      • Superior: Adrenal gland and spleen
      • Anterior-superior: Pancreatic tail
      • Inferior: Left colic flexure

    Kidney Internal Anatomy

    • Renal Cortex: Outer layer of kidney tissue.
    • Renal Medulla: Inner layer of kidney tissue, with pyramids.
    • Renal Sinus: Inner hyperechoic region containing fat, calyces, renal pelvis, vessels, and lymphatics.
    • Medullary pyramids: Triangles of collecting tubules. Often seen in newborns and pediatrics.
    • Renal Pelvis: Funnel-shaped structure collecting urine from major calyces, connecting to the ureter.
    • Renal Hilum: The medial opening for entry/exit of the renal artery, vein, and ureter.
    • Major Calyces: Extensions of the renal pelvis.
    • Minor Calyces: Extensions of major calyces, collecting urine from medullary pyramids. Each minor calyx corresponds to a medullary pyramid.
    • Renal Papilla: Tip of the medullary pyramid.
    • Gerota's fascia: Fibrous sheath enclosing the kidney and adrenal gland (perirenal space).
    • Nephron: Functional unit of the kidney, consisting of glomerulus, Bowman's capsule, tubules, and collecting ducts.

    Renal Vasculature

    • Kidneys receive blood through the renal artery branch of the aorta.
    • At the hilum, the renal artery divides into segmental arteries.
    • The segmental arteries divide into interlobar arteries, which run perpendicular to the renal capsule. These arteries travel between renal pyramids.
    • Arcuate arteries branch from interlobar arteries at the base of the medullary pyramids and run parallel to the renal capsule.
    • Interlobular arteries are the smallest renal arteries, branching off arcuate arteries and running perpendicular to the renal capsule.

    Renal Blood Flow

    • Main renal artery → segmental arteries → interlobar arteries → arcuate arteries → interlobular arteries.

    Sonographic Appearance

    • Renal Cortex: Isoechoic or hypoechoic relative to liver and spleen.
    • Renal Medulla: Anechoic.
    • Renal Sinus: Hyperechoic.
    • Echo amplitude ascending order: Renal Medulla < Renal Cortex < Liver < Spleen < Pancreas < Diaphragm < Renal Sinus ≈ Renal Capsule

    Anatomic Variants

    • Junctional Parenchymal Defect: Triangular hyperechoic area anterior to upper pole of kidney (fetal lobulation).
    • Hypertrophic Column of Bertin: Prominent cortical parenchyma extending between medullary pyramids.
    • Extrarenal Pelvis: Renal pelvis lying outside the renal sinus.
    • Dromedary Hump: A protuberance or bulge on the kidney's outer surface.
    • Renal Sinus Lipomatosis: Excessive accumulation of fat in the renal sinus.

    Kidney Function and Labs

    • Function: Filters wastes, maintains water/electrolyte balance, releases hormones (renin for blood pressure, erythropoietin for RBC production, Vit D metabolism).
    • Labs: Urea nitrogen, creatinine, uric acid evaluate renal function; RBC, WBC, bacteria indicate infection/tumors. Normal values vary by sex, age, region.
    • eGFR: Essential for assessment after discovering albuminuria.
    • CKD Stages: Normal: GFR >90 mL/min; End-stage: GFR <15 mL/min.

    Doppler Evaluation

    • Normal renal artery: Continuous forward flow during diastole (low resistance).
    • Doppler Exam Techniques: Small sample volume (2-5 mm), <60-degree Doppler angle, low wall filter, smallest possible PRF.
    • Resistive Index (RI): Used to assess renal disease, transplant rejection, suspected hydronephrosis. A normal RI is typically < 0.7. RI = (peak systolic velocity - end diastolic velocity) / peak systolic velocity.

    Congenital Anomalies

    • Agenesis/Hypoplasia: Absence or underdevelopment of one or both kidneys.
    • Collecting System Duplication: Complete or incomplete duplication of the collecting system (two ureters).
    • Ectopic Kidney: Kidney displaced from its normal position (pelvic, intrathoracic, crossed fused).
    • Horseshoe Kidney: Fusion of the lower kidney poles across the midline.

    Renal Diseases:

    • ADPKD (Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease): Inherited, cysts in kidneys, liver, and potentially other organs.
    • ARPKD (Autosomal Recessive Polycystic Kidney Disease): Present at birth, multiple small cysts, often with pulmonary hypoplasia and hepatic fibrosis.
    • MCDK (Multicystic Dysplastic Kidney): Multiple non-communicating cysts, absence of renal parenchyma, most common cause of neonatal abdominal mass.
    • Medullary Sponge Kidney: Cystic dilatation of medullary pyramids.
    • Renal Cysts (Simple): Fluid-filled cysts, common in older adults.
    • Renal Cysts (Complex/Atypical): Do not meet criteria of simple cysts, can be hemorrhagic, infected, multilocular, often require further investigation.
    • Acquired Cystic Disease: Multiple cysts in chronically failed kidneys (dialysis patients).
    • Renal Solid Masses: Benign (oncocytoma, angiomyolipoma, lipoma) or malignant (RCC).
    • Wilms Tumor (Nephroblastoma): Most common childhood renal tumor.
    • Urothelial Carcinoma: Malignant tumor of the urinary tract lining (Transitional Cell Carcinoma most common).

    Kidney Obstruction and Infections:

    • Congenital/Acquired obstruction - narrowing or blockage of the urinary tract (Ureteropelvic Junction Obstruction, Ureterocele)
    • Hydronephrosis: Dilation of the renal collecting system due to urinary tract obstruction, can be graded (1-3).
    • Urolithiasis (Renal Stones) : Calculi in the urinary system, often in kidneys. May be calcium, uric acid, or other types.
    • Nephrocalcinosis: Calcium deposits within the renal parenchyma.
    • Pyelonephritis (Acute/Chronic): Bacterial infection of the kidney, can result in pyonephrosis (pus in kidney). Xanthogranulomatous pyelonephritis is a chronic type.
    • Renal Trauma: Blunt or penetrating trauma.

    Renal Infarction and Injury:

    • Renal Infarction: Blood supply obstruction to the kidney (e.g., arterial occlusion).
    • Renal Injury/AKI: Acute kidney injury, impaired kidney function due to various causes (e.g., pre-renal, intrinsic, post-renal), characterized by reduced urine output, elevated BUN and creatinine.
    • CKD/Chronic Renal Failure: Irreversible decline of kidney function over time.
    • Renal Transplant evaluation: Transplant rejection or vascular complications are investigated.

    ###Lower Urinary Tract

    Ureters, bladder and urethra are important part in transporting, storing and eliminating urine.

    • Urinary Bladder anatomy and function*
    • Ureters structure and function*
    • Urethra structure and function (male/female)*
    • Voiding Mechanism*
    • Incontinence/Retention*

    Parasympathetic and voluntary nervous system impulses control the bladder and urethra

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    Description

    Test your knowledge on kidney anatomy, physiology, and embryology. This quiz covers the location, structure, and developmental stages of the kidneys. Do you know how kidneys function in the urinary system?

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