65 Questions
What is a deductive argument?
A type of reasoning that starts with premises and draws specific conclusions
What is a-priori knowledge?
Knowledge gained without relying on prior empirical evidence
What is a-posteriori knowledge?
Knowledge gained from prior experiences or observations
Why is a deductive argument sometimes referred to as 'a-priori' knowledge?
Because it draws conclusions without relying on prior empirical evidence
What is the main conclusion of Anselm's ontological argument?
God exists in reality and the mind
According to Anselm's ontological argument, why must God exist in reality?
Because it is greater for God to exist in reality/mind than just in the mind
What does Anselm attempt to prove in the second part of his ontological argument?
That God is a 'Necessary being'
What unique feature of God does Anselm believe 'necessity' represents?
'That than which nothing greater can be conceived'
What philosopher presented the ontological argument in his book 'Meditation 5'?
Rene Descartes
'I think therefore I am.' is associated with which influential philosopher?
Rene Descartes
What was the premise Descartes started with in his ontological argument?
'God is a supremely perfect being'
'A necessary being is greater than a contingent being' – according to Anselm, what does this imply about God?
'God must be a necessary being'
What did Anselm believe would happen if God simply 'existed' without being a necessary being?
'God would be like any human being'
According to Descartes, what are some of the predicates or essences of a triangle?
It has 3 sides that join together
What is one of the predicates/essences of a valley according to Descartes?
It has a down slope
Based on Descartes' argument, what must be one of the predicates of a supremely perfect being?
Existence
What did Descartes claim to have proved using the premise that all objects have certain predicates?
Existence of God
According to Norman Malcolm, how does he define God?
An absolutely unlimited being
What does Malcolm's definition of God imply about God's shape?
God cannot have a shape
According to Malcolm, why can't God exist just in time and space?
Because time and space limit God
In Malcolm's argument, what must God either be based on his definition?
'A necessary being'
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What was Gaunilo's main criticism of Anselm's ontological argument?
He argued that Anselm's logic was deductively ridiculous and could be used to prove anything described from the mind as the greatest must also exist.
What example did Gaunilo use to illustrate the absurdity of Anselm's logic?
An island
How did Anselm counter Gaunilo's island criticism?
By arguing that it is impossible to imagine an island that is the greatest due to the lack of agreed standard of greatness.
What was Kant's first criticism of the ontological argument?
He argued that existence is not a predicate/essence of anything.
According to Kant, what does every object have that makes it that object?
A predicate/essence
How did Anselm respond to Gaunilo's criticism using the example of an island?
By arguing that only God can be described as the greatest, unlike an island.
What term is used to describe Anselm reducing Gaunilo's logic to absurdity using an example?
'Reductio ad absurdum'
Why does the existence or non-existence of a triangle not alter its predicates/essences?
Because a triangle's predicates are not affected by whether it exists or not.
What did Kant use the example of a 100 Thalers to criticize?
Descartes' assumption that one of God's predicates must be existence.
What does Kant argue about the nature of a 'supremely perfect being' according to the text?
It may have several predicates but existence cannot be one of them.
What kind of statements do the ontological arguments depend on, according to the text?
Analytical statements
What does Kant argue Anselm, Descartes, and Malcolm needed to do in order to prove their definitions?
Provide empirical evidence for their definitions.
What does Anselm's first argument illustrate, according to the text?
The fool (non-believer) has to accept the ontological argument.
According to Aquinas, why can Anselm not possibly understand God in the way he defines God?
'God is the greatest' is beyond human understanding.
Why can a-priori knowledge be weaker than a-posteriori knowledge?
It is not based on our senses, so errors can be avoided
What is a common misconception about a-priori knowledge, as illustrated by the example of Father Christmas?
It always leads to true conclusions if the premises are true
Why does the ontological argument not support Eastern religions' concept of God?
Eastern religions have a multitude of gods with varied attributes
What makes a-posteriori knowledge open to error?
It relies on sensory perception, which can deceive us
What attribute of God is associated with the ontological argument?
Omnipotence and omnibenevolence
Why can a-priori knowledge be wrong, as highlighted by philosopher Bertrand Russell's example?
It relies on deductive reasoning, which can lead to false conclusions
What is the term 'ontological' based on?
Reality
What distinguishes the ontological argument from the cosmological and teleological arguments?
It uses deductive reasoning
Who is the originator of the Ontological Argument?
Anselm
Which part of Anselm's ontological argument attempts to prove God's existence?
Proslogian 2
What premise does Anselm start his argument with about the nature of God?
'God is That Than Which Nothing Greater Can Be Conceived'
What does Anselm ask in Stage 3 of his argument?
Whether it is greater for something to exist in reality or just in the mind/imagination
What does Anselm compare to illustrate his point in Stage 3?
A dream and reality
What does Anselm argue is 'greater' in Stage 4 of his argument?
$10 in reality and in a dream
What term does Anselm use for those who do not believe in God?
'Fools'
According to Anselm, why are people fools if they do not believe in God?
'Because it states in Psalm 14 'Fools say there is no God''
What does Anselm's ontological argument aim to show about God?
'God's reality'
What type of reasoning does Anselm use in his ontological argument?
Deductive reasoning
According to Malcolm, what is a 'possible being'?
A being that only exists for a limited time period
Why does Malcolm argue that God cannot be a 'possible being'?
Because 'possible beings' are limited by something else
Why does Malcolm argue that God must be a 'necessary being'?
Because a 'necessary being' is self-sufficient and not dependent on anything else
According to Malcolm, if God does not exist, what is His existence?
'Impossible'
Why does Malcolm assert that if God doesn't exist now, He can never exist in the future?
Because God needs to be created, which would limit Him
Why does Malcolm argue that God must be a 'necessary being' and not 'completely impossible'?
Because the concept of God's being a 'necessary being' is not self-contradictory
What does Malcolm borrow from Leibniz's philosophy to support his argument?
'Something is true if it is not self-contradictory'
Why does Malcolm argue that God's unlimited nature means He must be necessary?
Because an unlimited being has no limits and therefore must be necessary
Explore the concept of predicates and existence as explained by Kant. Understand how the nature of something remains unchanged whether it exists or not, using examples like triangles and unicorns. Delve into Kant's use of the example of 100 Thalers to illustrate this concept.
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