Job Analysis: PAQ, JSP, and JEI

Using Other Job Analysis Methods

• Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) is a structured instrument from Purdue University that was developed by McCormick, Jeanneret, and Mecham in 1972
• PAQ contains 194 items in six main dimensions: information input, mental processes, work output, relationships with other people, job context, and job-related variables like work schedule, pay, and responsibility

Job Structure Profile (JSP)

• JSP is a revised version of the Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ)
• JSP is designed for use by job analysts rather than job incumbents
• JSP includes item content and style, and new items to increase discriminatory power of intellectual and decision making dimensions

Job Elements Inventory (JEI)

• Job Elements Inventory (JEI) is a structured job analysis technique developed by Cornelius and Hakel
• The JEI is similar to PAQ but easier to read
• The JEI contains 153 items
• The JEI has a readability level suitable for an employee with a tenth-grade education
• The JEI may be a better replacement for the difficult-to-read PAQ

Functional Job Analysis (FJA)

• Functional Job Analysis (FJA) is a job analysis method developed by Fine
• FJA rates the extent to which a job incumbent is involved with three functions: data, people, and things
• Data includes information and ideas
• People include clients, customers, and coworkers
• Things include machines, tools, and equipment

Job Components Inventory (JCI)

• The Job Components Inventory (JCI) was developed by Banks, Jackson, Stafford, and Warr (1983)
• JCI is a structured job analysis technique that concentrates on worker requirements for performing a job rather than specific tasks
• The JCI consists of more than 400 questions across five major categories: tools and equipment, perceptual and physical requirements, mathematical requirements, communication requirements, and decision making and responsibility

"Arbeitswissenschaftliches Erhebungsverfahren zur Tätigkeitsanalyse" (AET)

• "Arbeitswissenschaftliches Erhebungsverfahren zur Tätigkeitsanalyse" (AET) means "ergonomic job analysis procedure"
• Ergonomic, the instrument is primarily concerned with the relationship between the worker and work objects
• To obtain information about the work environment, a job analyst might use the AET
• Rohmert and Landau (1983) developed the AET in Germany
• AET is a 216-item, standardized questionnaire

The Occupational Information Network (O*NET)

• The Occupational Information Network (O*NET) is a national job analysis system created by the federal government
• O*NET replaces the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT)
• O*NET includes information about the occupation (generalized work activities, work context, organizational context)
• O*NET includes information about the worker characteristics (ability, work style, occupational values and interests, knowledge, skills, education)
• O*NET includes information about economic factors like labor demand, salaries, and occupational trends

Critical Incident Technique (CIT)

• Critical Incident Technique (CIT) is a job analysis method developed by John Flanagan
• CIT uses written reports of good and bad employee behavior

Job Components Inventory (JCI)

• Job Components Inventory (JCI) provides information about the perceptual, physical, mathematical, communication, decision making, and responsibility skills needed to perform a job

Threshold Traits Analysis (TTA)

• Threshold Traits Analysis (TTA) is a 33-item questionnaire developed by Lopez
• TTA identifies traits necessary to successfully perform a job
• The the 33 items cover five trait categories: physical, mental, learned, motivational, and social
• TTA focuses on traits
• TTA is used in the development of an employee selection system or a career plan

The Personality-Related Position Requirements Form (PPRF)

• The Personality-Related Position Requirements Form (PPRF) was developed by Raymark, Schmit, and Guion (1997) to identify the personality types needed for job-related tasks
• The PPRF consists of 107 items tapping 12 personality dimensions
• The 12 personality dimensions fall under the "Big 5" personality dimensions of openness to experience, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and emotional stability
• The PPRF is reliable and shows promise as a useful job analysis instrument for identifying the personality traits necessary to perform a job

Job Evaluation

• Job evaluation is the process of determining the monetary worth of a job
• Job evaluation is typically done in two stages: determining internal pay equity and determining external pay equity

Determining Internal Pay Equity

• Internal pay equity involves comparing jobs within an organization to ensure that people in jobs worth the most money are paid accordingly

Step 1: Determining Compensable Job Factors

• The first step in evaluating a job is to decide what factors differentiate the relative worth of jobs
• Possible compensable job factors include level of responsibility, physical demands, mental demands, education requirements, training and experience requirements, and working conditions

Step 2: Determining the Levels for Each Compensable Factor

• Once the compensable factors have been selected, the next step is to determine the levels for each factor
• For a factor such as education, the levels are easy to determine (e.g., high school diploma, associate's degree, bachelor's degree)
• For factors such as responsibility, a considerable amount of time and discussion may be required to determine the levels

Determining External Pay Equity

• With external equity, the worth of a job is determined by comparing the job to the external market (other organizations)
• External equity is important if an organization is to attract and retain employees
• It must be competitive with the compensation plans of other organizations
• To determine external equity, organizations use salary surveys

Salary Surveys

• Salary surveys are questionnaires that are sent to other organizations to see how much they are paying their employees in positions similar to those in the organization sending the survey

Direct Compensation

• Direct compensation is the amount of money paid to an employee (does not count benefits, time off, and so forth)
• Employees are also compensated in other ways, such as pay for time not worked, deferred income, health protection, and perquisites (“perks”)
• Pay for time not worked includes holidays, vacation, sick days
• Deferred income includes Social Security and pension plans
• Health protection includes medical and dental insurance
• Perquisites (“perks”) include a company car

Determining Sex and Race Equity

• Pay audits should be conducted to ensure that employees are not paid differently on the basis of gender or race
• Two types of audits should be conducted: one that looks at pay rates of employees within positions with identical duties (equal pay for equal work) and a second that looks at pay rates of employees in jobs of similar worth and responsibility (comparable worth)

Identical Duties (Equal Pay for Equal Work)

• Identical duties is used to ensure that employees performing the same job, with the same duties, should receive the same compensation, regardless of factors like gender, race, or other personal characteristics

Similar Worth and Responsibility (Comparable Worth)

• Similar worth jobs of equal value to an organization should be compensated equally, even if jobs are different in terms of duties or responsibilities
• Jobs requiring similar skills levels, efforts, and working conditions, should receive similar pay, regardless of gender or other personality discriminatory factors

Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC)

• The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission(EEOC) is a branch of the Department of Labor charged with investigating and prosecuting complaints of employment discrimination
• Ensures that employers provide fair and equal treatment to employees and job applicants, regardless of factors such as race, gender, religion, disability, age, or national origin

The Legal Process

• The legal process consists of Resolving the Complaint Internally, Grievance System, Mediation, Arbitration, Binding Arbitration, Nonbinding Arbitration

Grievance System

• Grievance system is a process in which an employee files a complaint with the organization, and a person or committee within the organization makes a decision regarding the complaint.
• If employees do not like the decision, they can then take their complaints to the EEOC
• Employees can formally submit complaints about issues such as discrimination, harassment, unfair treatment, wage disputes, or violation of workplace rules

Mediation

• Mediation is a method of resolving conflict in which a neutral third party is asked to help the two parties reach an agreement.
• A mediator does not make decisions or impose outcomes but helps guide the process to a resolution
• If they cannot reach a solution, the complaint can be taken to arbitration or to the EEOC

Arbitration

• Arbitration is a method of resolving conflicts in which a neutral third party who then makes a decision as to which side is right.

Binding Arbitration

• Binding arbitration is a method of resolving conflicts in which a neutral third party is asked to choose which side is correct, and in which neither party is allowed to appeal the decision.

Nonbinding Arbitration

• Nonbinding arbitration is a method of resolving conflicts in which a neutral third party is asked to choose which side is correct, but in which either party may appeal the decision.

Protected Class

• Protected class is a group of people who are legally protected from discrimination based on specific characteristics or attributes
• These characteristics often include race, color, national origin, sex, disability, religion, age, and sexual orientation or gender identity
• A federally protected class is any group of individuals specifically protected by federal law

Laws

The Civil Rights Act of 1964

• The Civil Rights Act prohibits discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin

Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA)

• The Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA) is a federal law that, with its amendments, forbids discrimination against an individual who is over the age of 40

Disability

• Discrimination against people with disabilities by the federal government or by federal contractors is forbidden by the Vocational Rehabilitation Act of 1973
• Discrimination against the disabled by any other employer with 15 or more employees is forbidden by the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)

Vocational Rehabilitation Act of 1973

• The Vocational Rehabilitation Act is a federal act passed in 1973 that prohibits federal government contractors or subcontractors from discriminating against the physically or mentally handicapped

Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)

• The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) is a federal law, passed in 1990, that forbids discrimination against the physically and mentally disabled

Pregnancy Discrimination Act 1978

• Pregnancy Discrimination Act 1978is a federal law protecting the rights of pregnant women

Adverse

• Adverse is when an employment decision results in negative consequences more often for members of one race, sex, or national origin than for members of another race, sex, or national origin
• Adverse impact is usually determined by the four-fifths rule

Four-fifths Rule

• When the selection ratio for one group is less than 80% (four-fifths) of the selection ratio for another group, adverse impact is said to exist
• The percentage of applicants hired from one group is compared to the percentage of applicants hired in the most favored group, to determine adverse impact

Job Related

• Job related is the extent to which a test or measure taps a knowledge, skill, ability, behavior, or other characteristic needed to successfully perform a job

Types of Harassment

Quid pro quo

• Quid pro quo is a type of sexual harassment in which the granting of sexual favors is tied to an employment decision (eg. promotions and salary increases)

Hostile Environment

• Hostile environment is a type of harassment characterized by a pattern of unwanted conduct related to gender that interferes with an individual's work performance
• Such conduct can include comments, unwanted sexual or romantic advances, or the display of demeaning posters, signs, or cartoons

Preventing Sexual Harassment

• To avoid liability, the organization must have a well-conceived policy regarding sexual harassment, must have communicated that policy to its employees, and must have enforced that policy
• The policy must explain the types of harassment and include a list of the names of the company officials to whom an employee should report any harassment
• Organizations are responsible for harassment committed by vendors, customers, and other third parties

Fourth Amendment

• The Fourth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution protects citizens against unreasonable search or seizure by the government
• Its importance to psychology is in the area of drug testing and locker searches
• Drug testing is considered a “search,” and to be legal in the public sector, drug testing programs must be reasonable and with cause
• The Fourth Amendment is limited to public agencies
• Private industry is not restricted from drug testing by the Fourth Amendment, but government regulation may require drug testing

Drug-Free Workplace Act

• The Drug-Free Workplace Act requires federal contractors to maintain a drug-free workplace

Drug Testing

• Drug testing of current employees by a public agency must be based on "reasonable suspicion" and "just cause"
• Reasonable suspicion means that there is reason to suspect that employees are using drugs at work
• Suspicion can be produced from a variety of sources, including "tips" that employees are using drugs, accidents or discipline problems, actual observation of drug usage, or physical symptoms of being under the influence

Office and Locker Searches

• Office and locker searches are allowed under the law as long as they are reasonable and with cause
• Allowing employees to place their own locks on lockers removes the right of the organization to search the locker