J.J. Thomson's Atomic Theory and Occam's Razor

J.J. Thomson's Atomic Theory

• Through experimentation and data analysis, J.J. Thomson discovered that atoms are composed of subatomic particles.
• He identified one subatomic particle as negatively charged and called it the electron.
• His discoveries led to a revised version of the Atomic theory.

Occam's Razor

• Occam's Razor is a principle that suggests simpler explanations are generally better than more complex ones.
• The principle was popularized by William of Occam, an English friar from the 12th and 13th centuries.
• The principle is used to help scientists choose between competing hypotheses when multiple plausible explanations exist.
• One historical example is the shift from the geocentric model to the heliocentric model of the solar system.
• The heliocentric model was favored because it was simpler and did not require complex features like epicycles to explain unusual phenomena like the retrograde motion of Venus.

Scientific Knowledge Construction

• Scientific knowledge is constructed via empiricism, reasoning tools such as induction and deduction, Occam's razor, falsification, confirmation bias, and paradigm shifts.
• Cultural knowledge systems have contributed significantly to scientific progress.
• Traditional Knowledge systems in indigenous societies offer valuable insights into natural phenomena.

Cultural Observational Knowledge

• Cultural observational knowledge, while lacking in rigorous experimentation, often leads to key insights.
• Astronomy is a prime example of cultural observational knowledge.
• Ancient societies recognized the connection between astronomical events and phenomena like seasonal changes, weather patterns, and tides.

Ethical Considerations for Animal Research

• Animals are used in research to gain knowledge about their biology and behavior and to model human biology.
• Animal research is governed by ethical frameworks that emphasize animal welfare and minimize suffering.
• Vertebrate animals, capable of experiencing pain, are subject to ethical guidelines in research.
• Animal Ethics Committees review and approve research involving vertebrates.

Research Proposal Development

• A scientific research proposal entails a clear plan to investigate a scientific hypothesis.
• Essential components of the proposal:
  • Overall strategy for the research
  • Methodology for data collection
  • Data analysis plan
  • Communication strategy for research findings
  • Proposed timelines
  • Key benchmarks

Referencing Protocols

• Common referencing protocols in scientific research:
  • APA style
  • Harvard style
  • MLA style

Uncertainty in Experimental Evidence

• Two main types of uncertainty in experimental data:
  • Systematic errors: Consistent offsets in measurements, which are either larger or smaller than the true value by a fixed amount.
  • Random errors: Random variations in measurements, resulting in a scattered distribution of data around the true value, often following a normal distribution.

Quantitative and Qualitative Research Methods

• Quantitative Research: Measurable and quantifiable data, often expressed numerically.
• Qualitative Research: Data that is difficult to quantify, often gathered through open-ended questions and responses, such as interviews or case studies.

Statistical Concepts: Normal Distribution and t-test

• Normal Distribution: A bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many natural phenomena.
• t-test: A statistical test used to compare means of two samples, often to assess the significance of differences between them.
• Null Hypothesis: A statement claiming no difference between the observed sample mean and the hypothesized population mean.
• Significance Level: The probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is actually true.