James Madison and the War of 1812

James Madison & Foreign Policy

• James Madison, Jefferson's successor from Virginia, served as Secretary of State and was a dominant figure in the Constitution's creation.
• He was elected President in 1808 and re-elected in 1812.
• Foreign policy was the dominant issue during his presidency.
• The U.S. aimed to stay neutral in the Napoleonic Wars.
• The British were seizing American sailors, known as impressment, with approximately 10,000 forced into service on British ships, fueling American calls for war.

War Hawks and the Road to War

• War Hawks like Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun advocated for war with Britain.
• Clay, a freshman Congressman, delivered passionate speeches condemning impressment.
• A series of earthquakes, the New Madrid Earthquakes (1811-1812), struck during this period, killing around 1,000 people.
• Madison, as President, sent a war message to Congress, which then declared war.

The War of 1812

• The War of 1812 was the first time America formally declared war.
• The war was largely unsuccessful for the U.S.
• The British burned down the White House.
• The First Lady saved a portrait of George Washington during the White House fire.
• The British bombardment of Ft. McHenry inspired Francis Scott Key to write "The Star-Spangled Banner."
• The Battle of New Orleans was the most significant U.S. victory.

Treaty of Ghent & Hartford Convention

• The Treaty of Ghent, signed in Belgium in December 1814, ended the War of 1812, but essentially restored the status quo.
• News of the treaty arrived after the Battle of New Orleans.
• Impressment and the seizure of American ships ceased following the war.
• Federalists opposed the war, believing it disrupted trade, which then led to the Hartford Convention
• The Hartford Convention, expressing Federalist discontent with the war, proposed resolutions requiring a 2/3 vote on embargo acts and declarations of war, limiting presidential succession to one term, and preventing successive presidents from the same state.
• The Federalist party declined following the war, leaving only Republicans.

James Monroe and the "Era of Good Feelings"

• James Monroe, elected in 1816 and 1820, was the third president from the Virginia Dynasty.
• He previously served as Secretary of State.
• His presidency is often referred to as the "Era of Good Feelings," a period of relative political harmony.
• Sectional identity contributed to the end of the Era of Good Feelings

Economic Nationalism

• Economic Nationalism from 1816-1817 sought to revive Hamilton's economic program.
• The key components were the Second Bank of the U.S. (located in Philadelphia), protective tariffs (1816), and internal improvements (1817).
• The plan for internal improvements did not pass Congress.

Panic of 1819

• The Panic of 1819 was an economic downturn triggered by factors beyond anyone's control, including a sharp decline in cotton prices (from 32 cents/lb in 1818 to 18 cents/lb in 1819), which hurt Southern cotton farmers.
• The Second Bank of the U.S. contracted, limiting lending and exacerbating the crisis, particularly affecting Westerners.

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

• The Supreme Court case of McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) involved a clerk at the Second Bank of the U.S.
• Maryland attempted to tax the bank, which was challenged as unconstitutional.
• Chief Justice John Marshall ruled the tax unconstitutional, affirming the implied powers of Congress.

Missouri Compromise (1820)

• In 1820, the U.S. had 22 states, evenly divided between slave and free.
• When Missouri sought admission as a slave state, it threatened to upset the balance in the Senate.
• Henry Clay engineered the Missouri Compromise.
• Missouri was admitted as a slave state, while Maine was admitted as a free state.
• Slavery was prohibited in the remaining Louisiana Purchase territory north of the 36°30' parallel.
• The Missouri Compromise marked the end of the "Era of Good Feelings".

Monroe Doctrine (1823)

• The Monroe Doctrine (1823) addressed European influence in the Western Hemisphere.
• It promoted non-colonization, asserting that no new European colonies should be established in the Americas.
• It upheld Hands Off, declaring that America's form of government was incompatible with European systems.
• It advocated for noninvolvement, stating that the U.S. would not interfere in European affairs.
• Sectional identity was really highlighted during his office.

Election of 1824 and the "Corrupt Bargain"

• The Election of 1824 featured John Quincy Adams, Andrew Jackson, John Calhoun (who dropped out), William Crawford (who suffered a stroke), and Henry Clay, all running as Republicans.
• Because no candidate won a majority in the Electoral College, the House of Representatives decided the election.
• Clay, as Speaker of the House, favored Adams, who won the presidency.
• Jackson's supporters denounced the outcome as a "corrupt bargain."
• This election led to the formation of two parties: Democratic-Republicans/Democrats (1825-1832) and National Republicans/Republicans (1832 onward).

John Quincy Adams Presidency

• John Quincy Adams, elected in 1824, was considered a decent president.
• He appointed people to his cabinet without regard for political considerations, including John McLean from Ohio.

Election of 1828

• The Election of 1828 was a "nasty" campaign between Jackson and Adams.
• Jackson was accused of brawls and duels.
• Jackson's family was attacked, including accusations against his mother.
• Adams was accused of bribing women.
• Adams was portrayed as an aristocrat, while Jackson was framed as a commoner.

Andrew Jackson's Presidency

• Andrew Jackson was elected in 1828 with Calhoun as his vice president.
• He was born in South Carolina.
• Jackson was the first president to have been imprisoned.
• He had a background as a military officer.
• Jackson blamed the attacks during the election for his wife Rachel's death in 1828.
• He opened his inauguration to the public.
• Jackson implemented the "Spoils System," hiring supporters for government positions.
• He appointed John McLean to the Supreme Court.

Kitchen Cabinet and Jacksonian Democracy

• Jackson relied on an unofficial group of advisors known as the "Kitchen Cabinet."
• It met in the Kitchen and was full of people that be trusted the most.
• Every president has had one since then
• Jacksonian Democracy, dominated by Andrew Jackson, marked a shift towards greater popular participation.
• Jackson was the first "commoner" president and championed increased freedom and participation for all people.

Van Buren vs Calhoun Conflict

• Van Buren served as Secretary of State.
• Calhoun served as Vice President
• Van Buren opposed states' rights and nullification, holding nationalist views.
• Calhoun supported states' rights and nullification, displaying sectionalist leanings.

Jefferson Day Dinner

• The Jefferson Day Dinner, a Democratic Party event, became a stage for a showdown over nullification.
• Jackson's toast, "Our Union must be preserved," was interpreted as a rebuke of nullification, highlighting the differences between him and Calhoun.
• Van Buren's alignment with Jackson positioned him for future success.
• Jackson and Calhoun held animosity towards each other.
• Van Buren and Jackson got closer.

Eaton Affair

• The Eaton Affair further solidified the bond between Van Buren and Jackson.
• Peggy O'Neale, the wife of Secretary of War John Eaton, faced social ostracism due to rumors of an affair.
• By socializing with the Eatons, Van Buren gained favor with Jackson.

Webster-Hayne Debate (1830)

• The Webster-Hayne Debate (1830) centered on the conflict between federalism and states' rights.
• Daniel Webster (Nationalist) and Robert Hayne (Sectionalist) were the primary debaters.
• Webster, known as a great speaker, lured Hayne into the debate.
• Hayne defended states' rights.
• The debate highlighted the conflict between national and sectional interests.
• Jackson and Calhoun's relationship deteriorated further.

Debating the Past: Jackson's Legacy

• While Andrew Jackson was a central figure in the expansion of democracy, historians have varied interpretations of his actions and beliefs.
• Early 20th-century historians saw Jackson's politics as a challenge to economic privilege and political corruption.
• Frederick Jackson Turner argued that Jacksonianism opposed the aristocracy of the East, advocating for government serving the community rather than special interests.
• Arthur Schlesinger portrayed Jackson as seeking to restrain the power of capitalist groups, particularly in the East.
• Later historians, like Richard Hofstadter and Bray Hammond, argued that Jackson actually supported rising entrepreneurs and businessmen, who were being stifled by eastern aristocrats.
• Marvin Meyers suggested that Jackson viewed the emerging industrial society with unease.
• Later, historians shifted their focus, with Lee Benson examining the role of religion in Jacksonian Democracy.
• Edward Pessen argued that American society during the Jackson era was highly stratified.
• Sean Wilentz emphasized the rise of a powerful movement of white citizens who supported Jackson.
• More recent reassessments have focused on Jackson's role in securing the supremacy of white men, excluding enslaved people, women, and Native Americans.
• Despite his flaws, some historians like Robert V. Remini, maintain that Jackson was a man for the people.
• The main people who benefited from the Jackson democracy were people who supported the government being for the people.
• Jackson is still referred to as the "man of the people" because he attempted to support the people by changing the democracy.

Compact of 1802 & Cherokee Adaption

• The Compact of 1802 was an agreement between the federal government and Georgia.
• The federal government gave up claims to land (present-day Alabama and Mississippi) in exchange for Georgia ceding its claims to that land, on the condition that Georgia would remove the Native Americans.
• The Cherokees tried to retain their land by adapting to American culture; they built towns, engaged in farming, developed a written language, and even enslaved people.
• Georgia passed a law extending its control over Cherokee land starting June 1, 1830.
• Gold was discovered on Cherokee land, intensifying the pressure for removal.

Twenty-Niners & Cherokee Sovereignty

• The "Twenty-Niners" were individuals who rushed to North Georgia in search of gold.
• About 1,000 people were mining for gold, leading the Cherokees to call it "The Great Intrusion."
• Dahlonega and Auraria became boomtowns due to the gold rush.
• William Wirt, former Attorney General, ran for president in 1832.
• In Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831), the Cherokees argued that Georgia could not extend its laws over their land, claiming status as a foreign nation with sovereignty.
• The Supreme Court rejected the case.

Worcester v. Georgia (1832)

• Worcester v. Georgia (1832) involved Samuel Worcester, a missionary who was arrested for living on Cherokee land without taking an oath to Georgia.
• He was sentenced to 4 years of hard labor.
• The Supreme Court ruled that Georgia's law was unconstitutional and the state had no authority over Cherokee territory; only the federal government did.
• The Cherokees won the case, but Jackson refused to enforce the ruling, so they still couldn't keep their land.

Lottery of 1832

• Georgia used a lottery system in 1832 to distribute Cherokee land to its citizens, claiming that the government and congress could not be trusted to distribute the land.
• Georgia residents could participate.
• Surveyors reviewed land lots and gold lots to determine what kind of land was given away.
• Land Lots No Gold consisted of 131,309 available acres.
• Gold Lots Maybe Gold consisted of 35,000 available acres/
• Winners were announced in newspapers by picking them in barrels.

Treaty of New Echota (1835) & Trail of Tears

• The Treaty of New Echota (1835), signed at the Cherokee capital, ceded Cherokee land to the U.S.
• The Trail of Tears was the forced removal of approximately 13,000 Cherokees to land west of the Mississippi River.
• The U.S. Army escorted the Cherokees.
• An estimated 5,000 Cherokees died during the removal due to disease, starvation, and exposure.

Placer and Vein Mining

• Placer mining involves extracting gold from surface deposits using methods like panning, cradle rocking, and sluice boxes.
• Vein mining involves digging tunnels to extract gold-bearing quartz, often using a Stampmill to break up the quartz.
• Supplies can be purchased from the gold that is found through mining.

Dahlonega Mint (1838-1861)

• The Dahlonega Mint (1838-1861) was established to process gold from the Georgia gold rush.
• Before its establishment, the only Mint was in Philly.
• It produced $6 million worth of coins, processing over 1.8 million ounces of gold.
• As gold production declined in Georgia the mint was discontinued.
• The building was donated to the University of North Georgia.
• There is also real gold in the Gold Dome in Atlanta.

Urban Revolution (1800-1850)

• The Urban Revolution (1800-1850) saw a significant growth in urban areas.
• A population of 2,500 or more was considered urban.
• The number of urban cities increased.

Urban Problems

• Rapid urbanization created various challenges. Urban areas have to meet the following requirements:
• Housing was poor, small, and dirty.
• Decline in Morality
• Police society was not the best
• Fire was a common threat
• Dirt and disease and health concerns

Manifest Destiny

• Manifest Destiny was the belief that the U.S. was destined to expand its dominion from the Atlantic to the Pacific.

Oregon Dispute

• The U.S. disputed the boundary of Oregon with England.

Texas and the Mexican War

• The U.S. disputed the boundary of Texas with Mexico, leading to the Mexican War.

James K. Polk and the Mexican War

• James K. Polk, elected in 1844, campaigned on the slogan "54°40' or Fight!" regarding the Oregon boundary.
• Polk accepted war with Mexico.
• Both countries claimed the area between the Nueces River and the Rio Grande.
• When Polk sent American troops into the disputed area, the Mexicans open fired; Polk claimed "Mexico stepped on American soil”.

Mexican War (1846-48) and its Aftermath

• The Mexican War (1846-48) saw a young Republican, Abe Lincoln, elected into office.
• Lincoln's "Spot Resolution" challenged the justification for the war, questioning where American blood had been shed.
• The Mexican Army was notably better.
• With the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, Mexico surrendered.
• The Rio Grande became the border between the U.S. and Mexico.
• Mexico ceded the "Mexican Cession" to the U.S.
• America achieved its manifest destiny.
• The Mexican Lesson Eventually Started the Civil War 10-13 years. later.
• It Became the start of Abe Lincoln

Frederick Jackson Turner and the Frontier Thesis

• Frederick Jackson Turner (1763-1890) was a historian who saw westward expansion as central to American history, he was also the founder of the West
• The Frontier Thesis, articulated by Turner.
• The Heritage believed that the U.S. Heritage was European.
• Movement to the West has shaped American character and democracy by making America better than Europeans and Europeans better.

Land Policies: From Proclamation to Homestead Act

• The Proclamation of 1763 aimed to avoid conflict with Native Americans by restricting colonial settlement west of a line drawn along the Appalachian Mountains, but they didn't stop anybody from moving. Selling land was the revenue.
• The Ordinance of 1785, written by Thomas Jefferson, divided land into townships of 36 sections (1 mile by 1 mile), typically sold at auction, but $1 an acre was too expensive for many.
• The Land Ordinance of 1786 set the price at $2 an acre.
• The Land Law of 1800 sold land at auction for a minimum price of $2. Still with a minimum 320 acres required which was too much for many.
• The Preemption Act of 1841 gave squatters the right to purchase the land they had settled on, although the South voted down on this.
• The Homestead Act of 1862 granted 160 acres of public land to any adult citizen who lived on the land for 5 years and improved it.
• Farmers made the land useful and they should get it for tree and it dried up revenue.

Morrill Land Grant Act (1862)

• The Morrill Land Grant Act (1862) supported agricultural education.
• Each state received 30,000 acres per member of Congress.
• States would sell the land to support agricultural colleges and programs.
• The population continued to move westward, as reflected in census data since 1790.