Italian Geography and Ancient Roman History

Italian Geography and Climate

• Alps: Major mountain range in Europe, separating Italy from the rest of Europe.
• Apennines: Mountain range running through Italy, forming a backbone.
• Continental Climate: Hot summers, cold winters, common in central Italy's interior.
• Mediterranean Climate: Mild, wet winters, hot, dry summers, typical of coastal Italy.
• Highland Pastures: Mountainous regions used for raising livestock (sheep, cattle).
• Rich Plains: Fertile agricultural areas, especially around Rome, supporting a large population.

Ancient Roman History and Society

• Early Rome:

  • Founding of Rome: Legendary founding in 753 BCE by Romulus and Remus (symbol of she-wolf).
  • Tiber River: Vital water source and transportation route for Rome.
  • Tiber Island: Used for religious purposes, a healing center.
  • Seven Hills of Rome: Foundation of early Rome and central to its growth.
  • Plain of Latium: Fertile region around Rome, home to early Roman tribes and the Latin League.
  • Etruscan Government: Early Italian rulers, kings supported by aristocratic councils.
  • Animism: Belief in spirits in natural objects, influencing Roman religious views.
  • Etruscan Women: Had more rights and independence than Roman women.
  • Augury: Roman divination practice using omens, particularly birds.
  • Divination: Seeking knowledge of the future or divine will through signs and omens.
  • Fasces Axe: Bundle of rods around an axe, signifying Roman magistrate's power.
  • Via Saleria: Important ancient Roman road connected Rome to the Adriatic coast.

• Roman Gods:

  • Mars: Roman god of war, associated with military success and protection.

• Roman Military:

  • Roman Army: Known for its discipline, organization, and expansion.
  • Battle Progression: Refers to the strategic evolution of Roman tactics and change.
  • Army Training: Rigorous training and discipline ensured effectiveness.
  • Shield: Essential defense equipment (e.g., "testudo" formation).
  • Lorica Segmentata : Roman armor made of metal strips.
  • Helmet: Protective headgear for soldiers.
  • Pilum: Roman throwing spear used to penetrate defenses.
  • Gladius: Roman short sword effective in close combat.
  • Cohort: Military unit of ~480 soldiers.
  • Century: Military unit of 80 men, part of a cohort.
  • Tent Party: Basic organizational unit in the Roman military.
  • Legion: The primary military unit (4,000-6,000 soldiers).
  • Decimation: Harsh military punishment (one in ten executed).
  • Mercenaries/Auxiliaries: Non-Roman soldiers hired by Rome or from allies.

• Early Roman Conflicts:

  • Etruscans: Ancient Italian civilization that influenced Rome (e.g., religious, political practices).
  • Veii: Etruscan city destroyed by Rome after a long siege.
  • Gauls: Celtic tribes that invaded and sacked Rome.
  • Latin League: Federation of Latin cities allied with Rome.
  • Samnites: Italic people who fought against Rome in the Samnite Wars.
  • Tarentum/King Pyrrhus: Greek city-state and ruler who fought Rome in the Pyrrhic War.
  • Treaty of Rome (Latin Allies): Granted Latin allies rights in Rome.

• Roman Society and Culture:

  • Paterfamilias: Head of the Roman household with legal authority
  • Dignitas: Roman concept of personal honor and social status.
  • Auctoritas: Authority gained by experience, wisdom.
  • Pietas: Virtue encompassing respect for gods, family, and state.
  • Pontifex Maximus: High priest of Roman state religion.
  • Roman Names: Praenomen, nomen, cognomen (personal, family, nickname).
  • Patrician: Aristocratic class with political power.
  • Plebeian: Ordinary Roman citizens.
  • Client/Patron Relationship: System of protection and support.

• Roman Expansion and Wars:

  • First Punic War: Rome vs. Carthage, fought over Sicily, won by Rome.
  • Carthage: Powerful Phoenician city-state, Rome's rival.
  • Carthaginian Generals: Military leaders like Hannibal and Hamilcar Barca
  • Messana: Strategic city in Sicily, key in the First Punic War.
  • Syracuse: Wealthy Greek city-state, initially allied with Rome.
  • Pirates: Sea raiders who threatened Roman trade.
  • Corvus: Roman boarding device for naval battles.
  • Mylae: Key naval battle won by Rome in the First Punic War.
  • Hamilcar Barca: Carthaginian general, father of Hannibal.
  • Hannibal: Carthaginian general who crossed Alps.
  • Second Punic War: Major conflict between Rome and Carthage, Hannibal's invasion.
  • War Against Nature: Roman campaign against Hannibal's forces.
  • Elephants: Used by Hannibal, part of his army's crossing.
  • Mahout: Elephant handler
  • Trebia River, Lake Trasimene, Cannae : Key battles of Hannibal in the Second Punic War.
  • Zama: Battle where Scipio Africanus defeated Hannibal; end of the Second Punic War.
  • Scipio Africanus: Roman general defeated Hannibal.
  • Hasdrubal: Carthaginian general and brother of Hannibal.
  • The Sack of Carthage: Final destruction of Carthage, end of the Third Punic War.

• Roman Administration:

  • Provincial Governors: Roman officials ruling conquered territories.
  • Sicily: First Roman province.
  • Benefits of Roman Provinces: Economic resources, military support, and stability.
  • Tithe: Tax or tribute collected in provinces.
  • Equestrians: Wealthy Roman citizens involved in business, military, and government.
  • Slave-Operated Estates: Large agricultural estates using slave labor.

• Late Republic Problems:

  • Seven Ills of Rome: Factors for the Republic's decline.
  • Tiberius Gracchus: Roman tribune who proposed land reforms.
  • Land Reassessment Bill: Proposed land reform by Tiberius Gracchus
  • Gaius Gracchus : Tribune, expanded land reforms, was killed.
  • Gaius Marius : Roman general, reformed army.
  • Lucius Cornelius Sulla: Roman general, dictator, civil wars, proscriptions.
  • Proscription List: List of Sulla's enemies with rewards for their deaths.
  • First Triumvirate: Unofficial political alliance (Caesar, Pompey, Crassus).
  • Crassus: Wealthy general, part of the First Triumvirate.
  • Pompey : General, part of the First Triumvirate, Caesar's rival.
  • Julius Caesar: Roman general, statesman, dictator, assassinated.
  • Cisalpine Gaul : Region of Northern Italy conquered by Rome.
  • Caesar's Reforms: Political, social, and economic reforms
  • Julian Calendar : Roman calendar reform introducing leap years.
  • Ides of March : Julius Caesar's assassination date. - Mark Antony : Roman politician, general, ally of Caesar, Second Triumvirate. - Cleopatra : Queen of Egypt, lover of Caesar and Antony. - Caesarian : Son of Caesar and Cleopatra. - Lepidus : Member of Second Triumvirate. - Actium: Naval battle where Octavian defeated Antony and Cleopatra - Second Triumvirate : Political alliance (Octavian, Antony, Lepidus) - Augustus : First Roman emperor (former Octavian), established the empire.