Untitled

Life's Components: Biological Molecules

• The four main types of biological molecules are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

Carbon – The Central Element to Life

• Most biological molecules feature a carbon framework.
• Carbon is electroneutral.
• Carbon never loses or gains electrons, and always shares them equally.
• Carbon forms stable bonds with a variety of atoms.
• Carbon forms covalent bonds with other carbon atoms and has great bonding capacity.
• Carbon forms 4 covalent bonds to create large, complex molecules in chains, branches, and rings.
• The complexity of living things relies on carbon's linking capacity.

Organic Compounds

• Carbohydrates include polysaccharides and contain disaccharides, which are composed of two monosaccharides.
• Lipids include triglycerides, which are composed of fatty acids and glycerol.
• Proteins are composed of peptides, which themselves are composed of amino acids.
• Nucleic acids include RNA and DNA, both composed of nucleotides.
• High-energy compounds include ATP, which is composed of a nucleotide and phosphate groups.

Central Macromolecules

• Lipids include saturated and unsaturated fats.
• Carbohydrates include simple sugars, complex carbohydrates, and starch.
• Proteins include enzymes and muscle tissue.
• Nucleic acids include RNA and DNA.

Lipids

• Lipids have various functions, including energy storage.
• Lipids are insoluble in water, nonpolar hydrocarbons, and hydrophobic.
• Lipids don't have a monomer-polymer structure, and no single structural element is common to them.
• There are three types of lipids: fats, sterols, and phospholipids.
  • Fats are for long-term energy storage and insulation.
  • Sterols regulate growth and development.
  • Phospholipids form the membranes that enclose cells.

Fats

• Fats contain 2X more stored energy than carbohydrate molecules

Triglyceride Fats

• Triglyceride fats consist of a glycerol "head" region and fatty acid "tails".
• Triglycerides remain solid at room temperature (RT).
• People mainly eat triglycerides.

Saturated vs. Unsaturated Fats

• Saturated fats have a 1C:2H ratio and are straight, packing tightly to remain solid at room temperature.
• Unsaturated fats have C=C bonds, creating a crooked structure that doesn't pack together as tightly, remaining liquid at room temperature.
• In saturated fats, each carbon in the hydrocarbon chain is bound to two hydrogen atoms.
• For unsaturated fats, at least one carbon in the hydrocarbon chain is bound to only one hydrogen atom due to the double bond.

Sterols

• Sterols consist of 4 carbon rings.
• Sterols are found in cell membranes,regulate development, memory, mood, and sex via hormones
• Cholesterol is a sterol

Phospholipids

• Phospholipids are a major component of cell membranes.
• Phospholipids contain 2 fatty acids, glycerol, and a phosphate group.
• They feature a polar head that likes water and nonpolar tails that don't.

Waxes

• Waxes provide crucial protection and prevent desiccation.
• Most plants have a protective, waxy outer covering called the cuticle.

Carbohydrates

• Carbohydrates provide a source of chemical energy (food), as well as structural support and nutrient storage.
• Carbohydrates contain C, H, and O, and their suffix is commonly "-ose."
• C-H bonds store much energy, and the bonds are easily broken.
• Carbohydrates form from monomer building blocks like simple sugars, such as glucose.
• Monomers bond to create polysaccharides or complex carbohydrates.
• Sources include fruits, vegetables, starches and dietary fibre

Complex Carbohydrates - Polysaccharides

• There are four polysaccharides critical to life:
  • Starch, the nutrient storage form in plants.
  • Glycogen, the nutrient storage form in animals (liver, muscle).
  • Cellulose, which is rigid and structural in the cell walls.
  • Chitin, which is tough and forms the exoskeleton of arthropods.
• Starch consists of 100s of glucose molecules and is found in barley, wheat, rye, corn, and rice.

Carbohydrates and Glucose

• Carbohydrates are essential source of chemical energy
• Carbohydrates converts to Glucose
• Glucose has 3 fates in the blood which are
  • Storing Energy
    • Long Term
    • Short Term

Quick Burst vs Slow Release Energy forms

• Quick burst energy sugars
  • Easily Available
  • gone quick
  • Sources include fruits
• Slow release energy products
  • gradual breakdown
  • retain energy release longer
  • Sources include Oatmeal rice and pasta

Proteins

• Proteins are composed of monomers called amino acids (AA).
• Sequences of AA link together to form polypeptide chains
• They have structural roles
• Can be used to create enzymes

Proteins and Amino Acids String

• Proteins can be described as a String of Amino Acids
• Have structural and Enzymes roles

Amino Acids

• There are 20 different amino acids.
• They have various roles and shapes

Amino Acid Composition

• Amino acids are composed of
  • An Amino Group
  • A Carboxyl group
  • A Side Chain - Which is unique to each amino acid

Linking Amino Acids

• The linkage of several amino acids produces a polypeptide chain.
• A typical protein consist of hundreds of amino acids

Four Levels of Structure in Proteins

• Primary structure refers to the sequence of amino acids.
• Secondary structure involves structural motifs like alpha helices, beta pleated sheets, and random coils.
• Tertiary structure refers to secondary structure interactions.
• Quaternary structure involves two or more polypeptide chains

Protein Denaturing

• Denaturing occurs when the protein looses its shape due to
  • Extreme environments like changes in heat or pH

Enzymes

• Enzymes are Proteins that Catalyze Reactions

Nucleotides - Code Information

• Polymers are composed of nucleotides

Nucleic Acids

• Nucleic acids are for code information (genetic code)
• There are two types of nucleic acids: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA)
  • DNA consists of a Sugar-phosphate backbone
  • DNA has Nitrogen contained base of
    • Adenine
    • Thymine
    • Guanine
    • Cytosine

Nucleic Acids - types

• Both DNA and RNA direct production of proteins.

Nucleotides

• DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
  • Sugar (deoxyribose)
  • Phosphate group
  • Nitrogen-containing base (4 types) A-T C-G
• Functions as repository of genetic information
• Base sequence codes for proteins and controls expression
• DOUBLE STRANDED

DNA

• DNA is the blueprint
• DNA are connected with Hydrogen bonds
• They have base pairs
• DNA holds the genetic information to build an organism.
• Adenine ALWAYS pairs with thymine, and guanine ALWAYS pairs with cytosine.

Base Pairing - Complimentary strands

• DNA is made up of complimentary Strands
• Base pairing follows these pairing
  • A-T
  • G-C

Information Stored

• Information is stored through Base Sequence (ATTCGGCTACG...)

RNA (ribonucleic acid)

 - Sugar (ribose)
 - Phosphate group
 - Nitrogen-containing base

A-U C-G

• Transports DNA code to sites of protein synthesis
• Types of RNA
  • Ribosomal, Transfer, Messenger
• SINGLE STRANDED

RNA vs DNA

• RNA differs from DNA in three ways:
  • Sugar: RNA has ribose, while DNA has deoxyribose.
  • Structure: RNA is single-stranded, while DNA is double-stranded.
  • N-Base: RNA has uracil (U), while DNA has thymine (T).