Introduction to the Study of Memory

Introduction to the Study of Memory

• Interest in memory is as old as civilization.
• Philosophers and speakers relied on memorization techniques due to the absence of electronic devices.
• Memory weakens with disuse, but cognitive reserve increases with use.
• Memory is often associated with automatic repetition, though this is only a small part of learning.
• Thoth, the Egyptian god of memory and wisdom, is associated with fidelity and integrity.
• Mnemosyne, the Greek goddess of memory, knows secrets of beauty and knowledge.
• Interest in memory takes a reflexive character.
• Plato likened memory to a blank slate that differs between individuals.
• Good material impressions require a suitable temperature.
• Learning improves with similar, contrary, or related information through association.
• Ordered information is easier to learn.

Historical Perspectives on Memory

• Memory deteriorates with age, reducing resources and strategies for recall.
• Older people often talk about the past, demonstrating a reminiscence bump.
• Emotional episodes are easier to remember because they are linked to the amygdala.
• Memory episodes are arranged like shelves, with consciousness at the top.
• Recent experiences and frequent retrieval influence accessibility.
• Activation and inhibition regulate memory function.
• Aristotle believed that memories were spirits that traveled through the blood to the heart.
• Memories are now known to be neural connections.
• Simonides of Ceos (5th century BC) developed the "method of loci," a mnemonic technique based on familiar places.
• Anonymous book gave precepts on the nature of places and more effective images.
• This book was responsible for the transmission of memory arts based on places in the Middle Ages and Renaissance.
• Jewish traditions relied on "tannas," or repeaters, to transmit information through repetition.

Memory Throughout History

• Memory and Christian Life: Images were used to create lasting memory impressions, even in medieval monasteries and temples.
• Al-Tabari's Arabic Medicine: Recommended superstitious remedies for oblivion.
• Medieval understanding of memory: Viewed as a somatic disorder. A healthy body ensures a good memory.
• Galen's ancient medicine (2nd century) influenced the concept of memory. Maintaining the balance of four humors promoted a good memory.
• "The aphorisms of memory", a book by Arnau de Vilanova (3rd century): Short sentences related to what impairs and maintains memory.
• Psychological: "Often, remembering the things seen and heard reaffirms memory and preserves them.". To reinforce memories, drinking coffee is a great approach.

Renaissance and Beyond

• Renaissance emphasized the use of physical context in memory to improve memory with use of visual arts.
• The Renaissance saw the emergence of alternative mnemonic arts, such as the human body or hand.
• Juan Velázquez de Acevedo (1626) wrote four books on memory and how to exercise it. -Book 1: definition of memory, ways to exercise it and cultivate it -Book 2: aspects of the theory of memory. -Book 3: practice of the art of memory in specific areas. -Book 4: art of retention of learning.
• Similar theoretical concepts: Depth of processing is essential.
• Introspection and Experimentation in the 19th Century: The pre-eminence of two authors:
• Functionalism of William James (1842-1910). He uses the method in introspection.

Memory as a Science

• H. Ebbinghaus' experimental approach (1850-1909): first to study memory empirically, separating from the introspective method.
• Focused on the conditions that could explain an effect, isolate one, keep the rest constant, and modify it so that the changes produced could be quantified.
• Used meaningless syllables for purity, presented lists of varying lengths, and measured learning time.
• Introduced experimental controls, statistical analysis, and empirical evidence, leading to the study of forgetting characteristics.
• Memory is now a science after over 20 centuries.
• 20th-century developments involved scientific respectability and experimentation.

Modern Memory Research

• Memory research in the 20th century emphasizes controlled environments and basic mechanisms.
• Verbal learning emerged early in the century, and research findings robustly replicated, supporting divisions like short-term and long-term memory.
• Serial learning curve and interference effects were studied extensively.
• Neisser called attention to the triviality of lab findings.
• Loftus and Conway (1991) supported ecological validity, assessing memory in natural settings and under stress.
• Laboratory-derived findings are used to study everyday-life phenomena.
• Naturalistic observations are combined with controlled lab experiments to make a hyprid approach.

How Memory is Methodologically Studied

• Memory: Experimental methods have advanced the understanding of fundamental and complicated processes.
• Memory's original idea as a single system: Lost acceptance in the 1960s.
• Modal Model: Atkinson and Shiffrin proposed multi-warehouses in 1968.
• Definition of memory: A mental process for gaining and preserving information for later uses.
• Studying Memory: Lab, using neuroimaging, protocols, and questionnaires.

Systems of Early Storage

• Memory is an ability of the mind that allows us to gain experiences.
• Modal model of multiple memory structures: Environmental, external data is briefly held in sensory perceptive memory, transferred to CMP for limited capacity and duration, and finally to MLP for long-term storage.
• Sensory memory: integrates new information.
• Keeps information for short durations that are specific to each modality and helps facilitate perceptual analysis.
• Common sensory memories include iconic and echoic.
• Sensory memory visual.
• Sensory memory auditory.
• Echoic memory is the auditory version of iconic memory.

Sensory Memory

• Iconic memory: early storage, quick, and automated visual processing.
• Buffer of recognition: Iconic memory data is transferred into this more durable storage for reporting.
• The primacy: stimuli shows up first, facilitating the recall (visual).
• The "buffer of recognition": Echoic memory transmits to this reservoir, allowing report.
• Recency phenomenon: Enhanced recall of auditory stimuli shown last in a list.

Sensory Memory and Its Traits

• Variables that affect that:
• Recall lowers when the interval between original and reporting is increased.
• Masking: When visual is performed straight after the array, disturbing the memory.
• Constant results are found in populations of all ages.
• Alzheimer's patients: The duration is less

Short-Term Memory (STM) and Working Memory (WM)

• Store small amounts of material for brief durations

Short-Term Memory (STM): Capacity And Function

• Limited capacity: Can contain information in any modality.
• Maintenance relies on rehearsal due to short duration. Working Memory (WM): Temporarily store and manipulate details.
• Problems with the Modal Model

Working Memory (WM) and Its Importance

• Multifaceted: Made of parts and interacts.
• Importance: Temporarily store and manipulation of information.
• The multi-component: Help with comprehension, problem solving/calculation/planification: Multi-component model.

Phonological Loop

• Storage, relates with language section: Acoustic verbal information (structures includes Broca's region). Two components:
  • Phonological Store: a short-term store; keeps phonological representations.
  • Articulatory Control Mechanism: activates phonological information via rehearsal (subvocal).

Memory Span & Digit Span

• Memory Capacity: Limit the number of segments.
• George Miller stated the capacity limitations based on chunks.
• Modifying the prosody can induce the segments.
• Random digits organized better in three sets.
• The phonological similarity effect: Less capacity to recall words that are similar. Phonological similarity increases.

Summarizing The Information

• Extraction of recall: Involves recalling components from characteristics from phonological loop.
• Auditory speaking to phonological stored: Visually submitted through articulatory process.
• Articulatory suppression eliminates phonological similarity for general messages with subvocal performance.

Longitude of Speech and The Way it Affects Memory

• Difficulty: A difficult task, it indicates word amount is related to word duration.
• Consuming speech (saying a word): It has an impact on memory to the word. The speech does not assist.
• Irrelevant, unattended speaking: Lower memorization in auditory/speaking.
• It does not happen with nonverbal sounds/white noise
• Music is less interfere (instrumental).

Effects of Articulatory Suppression on Memory

• Articulatory suppression influences working memory.
• Working in irrelevant items impedes rehearsal and visual-to-phonological conversion.
  • Effects disappear

Loop Model

• Short-term (verbal): A component of the work structure that assumes to recall speech.
• Neuropsychology: Issues in vocal loops can trigger language skill difficulties.

Bucle & Language

• An instrument to help the learning. This proves language acquisition ability in patients
• Repeat a sound, and it may improve learning.

Visuo-spatial Scratchpad

• Retain information (visual/spatial).
• Functions: Orientation/route.

Visual And Spatial Tareas

• Tareas: Spatial Corsi (using blocks).
• Span visual (pattern matrices).

Memory Manipulator

• Memory, mental mind and recall affects tasks of recall. -Example: Stephen Wiltshire, this is is an extraordinary memory and can even describe objects and remember them.

Action of Simultaneous Tasks

• Suppression: Impaired ability to remember figure (phonological loop) and/or impaire vision creation (Visio-spatial).
• The process involved interferes the visions and spatial: Both, share cognitive sources.

Central Executive In Memory

• SAS to monitor and controls, coordinates other loop. relates frontal.
• Patients with these issues: They also has difficulties with verbal behavior (disrupt action, poor focus).

Executive Functions

• Frontal lobe, used for assessment. Consisted presented features like shape/color/number. if the participant cant do well, it results issues with the structures.

Attention Functions

• Distributes to multitask.
• Those segments are able to carry.

Impact of Tasks on Memory

• Increase complications.
• Models with work problems: Four components, can integrate information with conscious recall. integrate pre-existed information/new to old.

Memory Imaging

• Paulesu, Frith, and Frackowiak (1993)- Used tests -Pet and found connections between frontal structures, specifically. -One area between the parietal related auditory and articulation and Another one was linked to broca.

Comparing The Memories

• (Smith and Jonides 1997) task verbal, it was replicated by high tests, while Visual had structures in the structure.
• Lóbulo frontals.
• N-BAck Tarea: Involved from front, this increase from load.

Acquisition and Retention of Memories

• Long period information: Different structures based on connection.
• Long period - It can be used to have the most information that can be used and connected.

Implicit and Explicit

• Explain what that it is! Explacit has two memories: Episodic and semantic. -Both requires different information.