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Questions and Answers
What is the primary focus of the nature-nurture debate?
What is the primary focus of the nature-nurture debate?
Which statement best describes the concept of multidirectional development?
Which statement best describes the concept of multidirectional development?
What defines a critical period in human development?
What defines a critical period in human development?
How does socioeconomic status (SES) influence development?
How does socioeconomic status (SES) influence development?
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What role does culture play in psychological development?
What role does culture play in psychological development?
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Which aspect describes the concept of plasticity in human development?
Which aspect describes the concept of plasticity in human development?
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What is the main tenet of behaviorism in human development?
What is the main tenet of behaviorism in human development?
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Which of the following reflects Erikson's perspective on human development?
Which of the following reflects Erikson's perspective on human development?
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Which concept highlights the impact of immediate surroundings on a person's development?
Which concept highlights the impact of immediate surroundings on a person's development?
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What term refers to the process of reinterpreting old ideas to incorporate new experiences?
What term refers to the process of reinterpreting old ideas to incorporate new experiences?
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Which theory emphasizes learning through observing others and the role of self-efficacy?
Which theory emphasizes learning through observing others and the role of self-efficacy?
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In the context of human development, what does the term 'critical period' refer to?
In the context of human development, what does the term 'critical period' refer to?
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Which component of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems approach concerns external contexts that affect development, such as social services and community resources?
Which component of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems approach concerns external contexts that affect development, such as social services and community resources?
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What is the main focus of cognitive theory in the context of human development?
What is the main focus of cognitive theory in the context of human development?
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Which of the following best describes the nature-nurture debate in human development?
Which of the following best describes the nature-nurture debate in human development?
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Which perspective emphasizes the importance of cultural context in understanding human behavior and development?
Which perspective emphasizes the importance of cultural context in understanding human behavior and development?
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What does the term 'nature' refer to in the nature-nurture debate?
What does the term 'nature' refer to in the nature-nurture debate?
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Which of the following best describes the concept of critical or sensitive periods?
Which of the following best describes the concept of critical or sensitive periods?
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How is development characterized according to the life-span perspective?
How is development characterized according to the life-span perspective?
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What does the term 'cohort' refer to in the context of multidisciplinary development?
What does the term 'cohort' refer to in the context of multidisciplinary development?
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Which of the following factors are encompassed within the nurturing aspect of the nature-nurture debate?
Which of the following factors are encompassed within the nurturing aspect of the nature-nurture debate?
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What is a common misconception about the continuity of development?
What is a common misconception about the continuity of development?
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Which aspect reflects the multicontextual nature of development?
Which aspect reflects the multicontextual nature of development?
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Which theory suggests that human development occurs in stages over time?
Which theory suggests that human development occurs in stages over time?
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Study Notes
Introduction to the Science of Development
- This chapter introduces the science of human development
- It aims to understand how and why people of all ages change over time.
Assessment
- Presentation: 15%
- Group Assignment: 15%
- Individual Assignment: 15%
- Mid-term exam: 20%
- Final exam: 40%
- Total: 100%
- Continuous Assessment: 20% x 60
- Final: 20% x 40
- Compulsory pass mark of 20% for each assessment
References
- Santrock, J. W. (2021). Life-span development (18th ed.). McGraw-Hill.
- Santrock, J. W. (2022). Essentials of life-span development. McGraw-Hill Education.
- Papalia, D. E., & Martorell, G. (2021). Experience human development. McGraw-Hill Education.
- Gillibrand, R., Lam, V., & O'Donnell, V. L. (2016). Developmental psychology. Pearson Education Limited.
Defining Development
- The science of human development seeks to understand how and why people, of all ages and from all walks of life, change over time.
Understanding How and Why
- Five basic steps of the scientific method:
- Pose a question based on theory, prior research, or observation
- Develop a testable hypothesis
- Gather empirical evidence (data)
- Draw conclusions and either support or refute the hypothesis
- Report the results and alternative explanations
The Nature-Nurture Debate
- Nature: Influence of genes inherited
- Nurture: Environmental influences (e.g., mother's health, family, school, community, society)
Critical/Sensitive Periods
- A critical or sensitive period is a time when specific experiences have a significant impact on later development.
The Life-Span Perspective
- Multidirectional: Human characteristics change in various directions over time.
- Stages: Some theorists describe development in stages (e.g., Freud, Erikson, Piaget).
- Continuous: Others view development as a continuous process.
- Multicontextual: Development occurs within multiple contexts:
Historical Context
- Cohort: Group of people born within a few years of one another, sharing similar historical experiences.
Socioeconomic Context
- Socioeconomic status (SES): A person's position in society, determined by income, wealth, occupation, education, and residence.
Development Is Multicultural
- Culture: Shared patterns of behavior passed from one generation to the next
- Vygotsky: Described the interaction between culture and education
- Ethnic group: People whose ancestors come from the same region, share a common language, culture, and religion.
Development Is Multidisciplinary
- Genetics and neuroscience are important disciplines in lifespan research.
- Every trait (psychological and physical) is influenced by genes.
Development Is Plastic
- Human traits can be shaped, but people maintain a certain level of consistency.
- Mirror neurons: Brain cells that respond to actions performed by others as if the observer had performed the action.
Theories of Human Development
- A developmental theory provides a framework for understanding how and why people change as they get older.
Psychoanalytic Theory
- A theory emphasizing the role of irrational, unconscious drives and motivations, often originating in childhood, on observable behavior.
- Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) developed this theory
Erik Erikson's Stages
- Developed eight stages of psychosocial development, each characterized by a specific developmental crisis (1902-1994).
- First five stages builds upon some aspects of Freud's theory, but include three other stages for adults.
Behaviorism
- A theory focused on observable behavior.
- Learning theory: Explains how behaviors are learned.
- Conditioning: Processes by which responses become linked to particular stimuli.
Classical Conditioning
- Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) developed classical conditioning.
- A learning process where a neutral stimulus is associated with a meaningful stimulus, leading to a similar response to the neutral stimulus.
Operant Conditioning
- B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) developed operant conditioning.
- A learning process where a particular action is followed by either a desired reward (making the action more likely to occur) or an undesirable consequence (making the action less likely).
Social Learning Theory
- Albert Bandura (b. 1925): An extension of behaviorism that emphasizes the influence of other people on behavior.
- Modeling: People learn by observing and copying others.
- Self-efficacy: Belief in one's ability to influence or change outcomes.
Cognitive Theory
- Thoughts and expectations significantly affect actions (Jean Piaget, 1896-1980).
- Focuses on changes in how people think over time.
Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development
- Different stages for understanding the world by using senses and motor abilities.
Assimilation and Accommodation
- Assimilation: Interpreting new experiences to fit existing ideas.
- Accommodation: Restructuring existing ideas to include new experiences.
Systems Theory
- Change in one aspect of a person, family, or society affects other aspects of development.
- Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems approach: Considers the person within all their contexts and interactions.
Five Components of Bronfenbrenner's System
- Microsystem: Immediate surroundings (family, peers)
- Mesosystem: Connections between settings (e.g., home and school)
- Exosystem: Local institutions (e.g., school, church)
- Macrosystem: Larger social setting (e.g., cultural values, economic policies)
- Chronosystem: Changes over time that affect the other systems
Using the Scientific Method: Observation
- Researchers record behavior systematically and objectively.
- Naturalistic or laboratory settings are used to observe.
Using the Scientific Method: Experiment
- Experiments establish causal relationships among variables.
- Independent variable: The variable manipulated by the researcher.
- Dependent variable: The variable measured to see if it changes in response to the independent variable.
- Experimental group: Receives the treatment.
- Comparison/control group: Does not receive the treatment.
Using the Scientific Method: Longitudinal Research
- Data collected repeatedly on the same individuals over time.
Using the Scientific Method: Cross-Sequential Research
- Study several groups of differing ages and track them over time (combining cross-sectional and longitudinal approaches).
Using the Scientific Method: The Survey
- Collecting information from a large number of people through interviews, questionnaires, or other means.
Cautions from Science: Correlation and Causation
- Correlation: A relationship between two variables.
- Positive Correlation: Both variables increase or decrease together.
- Negative Correlation: One variable increases while the other decreases.
- Zero Correlation: No relationship between variables.
- Correlation does not equal causation.
Ethics
- Researchers must ensure that participation is voluntary, confidential, and harmless.
- Informed consent: Subjects must understand the research procedures and risks involved.
- Confidentiality: Data must be kept private.
- Debriefing: Participants learn the purpose and methods of the research.
- Deception: Sometimes necessary, but only when unavoidable. If used, subjects must be debriefed.
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Description
This quiz covers Chapter 1 of the life-span development course, focusing on the science of human development. It explores how and why individuals across different ages undergo changes. Prepare to assess your understanding of key concepts introduced in this chapter.
