Introduction to the Science of Development

Introduction to the Science of Development

• This chapter introduces the science of human development
• It aims to understand how and why people of all ages change over time.

Assessment

• Presentation: 15%
• Group Assignment: 15%
• Individual Assignment: 15%
• Mid-term exam: 20%
• Final exam: 40%
• Total: 100%
• Continuous Assessment: 20% x 60
• Final: 20% x 40
• Compulsory pass mark of 20% for each assessment

References

• Santrock, J. W. (2021). Life-span development (18th ed.). McGraw-Hill.
• Santrock, J. W. (2022). Essentials of life-span development. McGraw-Hill Education.
• Papalia, D. E., & Martorell, G. (2021). Experience human development. McGraw-Hill Education.
• Gillibrand, R., Lam, V., & O'Donnell, V. L. (2016). Developmental psychology. Pearson Education Limited.

Defining Development

• The science of human development seeks to understand how and why people, of all ages and from all walks of life, change over time.

Understanding How and Why

• Five basic steps of the scientific method:
  • Pose a question based on theory, prior research, or observation
  • Develop a testable hypothesis
  • Gather empirical evidence (data)
  • Draw conclusions and either support or refute the hypothesis
  • Report the results and alternative explanations

The Nature-Nurture Debate

• Nature: Influence of genes inherited
• Nurture: Environmental influences (e.g., mother's health, family, school, community, society)

Critical/Sensitive Periods

• A critical or sensitive period is a time when specific experiences have a significant impact on later development.

The Life-Span Perspective

• Multidirectional: Human characteristics change in various directions over time.
• Stages: Some theorists describe development in stages (e.g., Freud, Erikson, Piaget).
• Continuous: Others view development as a continuous process.
• Multicontextual: Development occurs within multiple contexts:

Historical Context

• Cohort: Group of people born within a few years of one another, sharing similar historical experiences.

Socioeconomic Context

• Socioeconomic status (SES): A person's position in society, determined by income, wealth, occupation, education, and residence.

Development Is Multicultural

• Culture: Shared patterns of behavior passed from one generation to the next
• Vygotsky: Described the interaction between culture and education
• Ethnic group: People whose ancestors come from the same region, share a common language, culture, and religion.

Development Is Multidisciplinary

• Genetics and neuroscience are important disciplines in lifespan research.
• Every trait (psychological and physical) is influenced by genes.

Development Is Plastic

• Human traits can be shaped, but people maintain a certain level of consistency.
• Mirror neurons: Brain cells that respond to actions performed by others as if the observer had performed the action.

Theories of Human Development

• A developmental theory provides a framework for understanding how and why people change as they get older.

Psychoanalytic Theory

• A theory emphasizing the role of irrational, unconscious drives and motivations, often originating in childhood, on observable behavior.
• Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) developed this theory

Erik Erikson's Stages

• Developed eight stages of psychosocial development, each characterized by a specific developmental crisis (1902-1994).
• First five stages builds upon some aspects of Freud's theory, but include three other stages for adults.

Behaviorism

• A theory focused on observable behavior.
• Learning theory: Explains how behaviors are learned.
• Conditioning: Processes by which responses become linked to particular stimuli.

Classical Conditioning

• Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) developed classical conditioning.
• A learning process where a neutral stimulus is associated with a meaningful stimulus, leading to a similar response to the neutral stimulus.

Operant Conditioning

• B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) developed operant conditioning.
• A learning process where a particular action is followed by either a desired reward (making the action more likely to occur) or an undesirable consequence (making the action less likely).

Social Learning Theory

• Albert Bandura (b. 1925): An extension of behaviorism that emphasizes the influence of other people on behavior.
• Modeling: People learn by observing and copying others.
• Self-efficacy: Belief in one's ability to influence or change outcomes.

Cognitive Theory

• Thoughts and expectations significantly affect actions (Jean Piaget, 1896-1980).
• Focuses on changes in how people think over time.

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

• Different stages for understanding the world by using senses and motor abilities.

Assimilation and Accommodation

• Assimilation: Interpreting new experiences to fit existing ideas.
• Accommodation: Restructuring existing ideas to include new experiences.

Systems Theory

• Change in one aspect of a person, family, or society affects other aspects of development.
• Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems approach: Considers the person within all their contexts and interactions.

Five Components of Bronfenbrenner's System

• Microsystem: Immediate surroundings (family, peers)
• Mesosystem: Connections between settings (e.g., home and school)
• Exosystem: Local institutions (e.g., school, church)
• Macrosystem: Larger social setting (e.g., cultural values, economic policies)
• Chronosystem: Changes over time that affect the other systems

Using the Scientific Method: Observation

• Researchers record behavior systematically and objectively.
• Naturalistic or laboratory settings are used to observe.

Using the Scientific Method: Experiment

• Experiments establish causal relationships among variables.
• Independent variable: The variable manipulated by the researcher.
• Dependent variable: The variable measured to see if it changes in response to the independent variable.
• Experimental group: Receives the treatment.
• Comparison/control group: Does not receive the treatment.

Using the Scientific Method: Longitudinal Research

• Data collected repeatedly on the same individuals over time.

Using the Scientific Method: Cross-Sequential Research

• Study several groups of differing ages and track them over time (combining cross-sectional and longitudinal approaches).

Using the Scientific Method: The Survey

• Collecting information from a large number of people through interviews, questionnaires, or other means.

Cautions from Science: Correlation and Causation

• Correlation: A relationship between two variables.
• Positive Correlation: Both variables increase or decrease together.
• Negative Correlation: One variable increases while the other decreases.
• Zero Correlation: No relationship between variables.
• Correlation does not equal causation.

Ethics

• Researchers must ensure that participation is voluntary, confidential, and harmless.
• Informed consent: Subjects must understand the research procedures and risks involved.
• Confidentiality: Data must be kept private.
• Debriefing: Participants learn the purpose and methods of the research.
• Deception: Sometimes necessary, but only when unavoidable. If used, subjects must be debriefed.