Introduction to Sociology

• Sociology is the systematic study of groups, societies, and social interactions.
• Sociology operates at micro-level (small-scale) and macro-level (large-scale).
• Society is a group sharing a geographic area, interacting, and sharing culture.
• Culture encompasses shared practices, values, and beliefs influencing life aspects.
• Sociological imagination connects individual behavior to broader social structures (C. Wright Mills).
• Reification is treating abstract concepts like culture as tangible.
• Figuration integrates individual behaviors with societal structures for analysis.

History of Sociology

• Sociology comes from philosophical inquiries, influenced by the Enlightenment, Industrial Revolution, and social changes.
• Auguste Comte coined "sociology" and introduced positivism (scientific study of society).
• Harriet Martineau translated Comte, addressing gender inequality.
• Karl Marx developed conflict theory, focusing on class struggles.
• Herbert Spencer introduced Social Darwinism, comparing society to organisms.
• Émile Durkheim established sociology academically, emphasizing social facts and collective conscience.
• Max Weber emphasized culture, introducing verstehen (deep understanding).

Theoretical Perspectives

• Structural Functionalism views society as a system where interrelated parts work together to maintain stability.
• Social institutions contribute to social order, manifest functions are intended outcomes, and latent functions are unintended effects.
• Dynamic equilibrium is sought within social structures, yet this perspective struggles with explaining social change and dysfunctions.
• Conflict Theory sees society as a competition for limited resources, focusing on power disparities and inequalities.
• Key figures include Karl Marx, Ludwig Gumplowicz, and Max Weber, although critics suggest it overemphasizes conflict, neglecting stability.
• Symbolic Interactionism examines interactions and meanings attached through symbols/language.
• George Herbert Mead and Erving Goffman are key figures, but critics note the micro-focus may miss larger structures and power dynamics.

Why Study Sociology

• Sociology helps individuals understand their place in society and how society shapes them.
• Applicable fields include social services, counseling, community planning, and marketing.
• Skills gained include understanding social systems, data analysis, recognizing differences, and critical thinking.

Culture and Society

• Culture includes shared beliefs, behaviors, and objects; society is a group sharing area and culture.
• Material culture includes physical objects while nonmaterial culture involves ideas and beliefs.
• Cultural universals are common traits found across societies, like family structures.
• Ethnocentrism judges cultures by one's own standards; xenocentrism views another culture as superior.
• Culture shock is disorientation when encountering an unfamiliar culture.
• Cultural relativism evaluates a culture based on its own standards.
• Symbols convey meaning; language enables communication and cultural transmission.

Types of Societies

• Preindustrial societies are small, rural, and rely on local resources (e.g., Hunter-Gatherer, Pastoral).
• Industrial societies involve a shift to factory-based labor and increased social mobility.
• Postindustrial societies are based on information and services driven by digital technology.

Key Thinkers/Theories

• Émile Durkheim focused on functionalism, collective conscience, and anomie (sense of normlessness).
• Karl Marx emphasized conflict theory, class struggle, and alienation.
• Max Weber worked on symbolic interactionism, rationalization, and the "iron cage" (increased rationalization).

Social Construction of Reality

• Peter Berger & Thomas Luckmann: Society is created through habitualization (repeated actions becoming patterns).
• Thomas Theorem: Situations defined as real become real in their consequences.
• Self-fulfilling prophecy: False ideas become true when acted upon.

Roles and Status

• Roles are expected behaviors tied to a status, a socially-defined position.
• Ascribed statuses are assigned at birth, while achieved statuses are earned or chosen.
• Role strain occurs within a single status; role conflict arises between different statuses.

Presentation of Self

• Erving Goffman: Dramaturgy views social life as a performance, impression management shapes how others perceive us.
• Charles Cooley: Looking-Glass Self is the self-concept shaped by how others see us.

Tips for Studying Sociology

• Focus on key theorists: Durkheim, Marx, Weber.
• Connect concepts to real-world examples.
• Apply terms to contemporary issues.
• Reflect on how theories explain current events.
• Discuss with peers to reinforce learning.
• Use study groups for broader understanding.