Introduction to Science

• Science involves a systematic and organized method to comprehend the natural world via observation, experimentation, and analysis.
• Science depends on empirical data and evidence-based reasoning to either support/refute theories and hypotheses.
• The scientific method comprises collecting observations, designing experiments, formulating a hypothesis, drawing conclusions, and analyzing data.
• New evidence constantly changes scientific knowledge, which refines/replaces current theories.
• Science includes a broad array of disciplines, for example, physics, chemistry, biology, astronomy, geology, and environmental science.

Key Principles of Science

• Objectivity: Attempts to reduce bias in interpretations, observations, and conclusions.
• Empirical Evidence: Uses data gained through experimentation and observation.
• Skepticism: Questions assertions while requiring proof before accepting them.
• Reproducibility: Guarantees experiments can be verified through replication by other scientists.
• Openness: Encourages transparency and collaboration by sharing methods, data, and results with the science community.

Branches of Science

• Natural Sciences: Centers on studying both the physical world and life sciences.
• Social Sciences: Centers on studying human behavior and societies.
• Formal Sciences: Centers on abstract concepts, logic, and mathematics.
• Applied Sciences: Puts scientific knowledge to use for practical problems.

Physics

• Physics refers to the study of matter, energy, and their interactions.
• Classical mechanics considers the motion of objects when affected by forces.
• Thermodynamics studies heat, energy, and entropy.
• Electromagnetism looks into the connection between magnetism and electricity.
• Quantum mechanics takes a look at how matter acts at subatomic and atomic levels.
• Relativity, both general and special, explains how gravity, space, and time relate.

Chemistry

• Chemistry is the study of matter and its properties, along with how it changes.
• Atoms make up matter, and they combine to make molecules.
• Chemical reactions involve molecules and atoms rearranging.
• Stoichiometry takes into account the quantitative connections between products and reactants in chemical reactions.
• Thermodynamics and chemistry studies energy transfer, in addition to equilibrium, during chemical reactions.
• Organic chemistry concentrates on reactions and carbon-containing compounds.
• Biochemistry explores living organisms' chemical processes.

Biology

• Biology is the study of living organisms, including their structure, origin, function, evolution, growth, and distribution.
• Cells form the basic units of life.
• Genetics refers to the study of variation and heredity within organisms.
• Evolution describes life's diversity through other mechanisms and natural selection.
• Ecology takes a look the interaction between organisms and their surrounding environments.
• Physiology studies living organisms' functions and mechanisms.
• Microbiology focuses on viruses, fungi, and bacteria.

Astronomy

• Astronomy refers to the study of celestial objects and phenomena.
• Stars are plasma spheres that are luminous and massive, while gravity holds them together.
• Galaxies refer to vast collections of gas, dust, and stars that gravity holds together.
• Planets refer to celestial bodies which orbit stars.
• Cosmology studies the universe's origin, structure, and evolution.
• Astrophysics makes use of physics principles to study astronomical objects.

Geology

• Geology refers to the study of Earth, including its processes, composition, and structure.
• Plate tectonics describes the movement of the Earth's lithosphere and the formation of continents, mountains, and oceans.
• Seismology studies earthquakes and seismic waves.
• Mineralogy focuses on the study of minerals, along with their formation and properties.
• Petrology considers the classification, composition, and origin of rocks.
• Paleontology studies life's history and fossils on Earth.

Environmental Science

• Environmental science studies the interactions between humans and the environment.
• A key component, ecology examines the interactions between organisms and their environment and ecosystems.
• The long-term change of typical weather patterns and temperatures in one place is climate change.
• Pollution refers to the contamination of soil, water, and air because of harmful substances.
• Conservation biology focuses on protecting endangered species and biodiversity.
• Environmental policy addresses environmental problems through regulations, international agreements, and laws.

The Scientific Method

• Observation: Gathering information through the use of the senses.
• Hypothesis: Phenomenon's testable explanation.
• Experiment: A controlled procedure designed to test a hypothesis.
• Data Analysis: Organizing and interpreting data.
• Conclusion: A summary of experiment findings and whether they support the hypothesis.
• Peer Review: Evaluation of scientific work by field experts.

Measurement and Units

• The International System of Units (SI) is the standard system of measurement used in science.
• Length is measured in meters (m).
• Mass is measured in kilograms (kg).
• Time is measured in seconds (s).
• Temperature is measured in Kelvin (K) or Celsius (°C).
• Volume is measured in cubic meters (m³) or liters (L).

Scientific Notation

• Scientific notation expresses very small or very large numbers using powers of 10.
• A number in scientific notation is written as a × 10^b, where a is a number between 1 and 10, and b is an integer.
• 3,000,000 can be written as 3 × 10^6, and 0.000002 can be written as 2 × 10^-6 as an example.

Error Analysis

• Error analysis involves assessing the accuracy and precision of measurements.
• Accuracy refers to how close a measurement is to the true value.
• Precision refers to the repeatability of a measurement.
• Random errors are unpredictable variations in measurements.
• Systematic errors are consistent errors that affect all measurements in the same way.

Data Representation

• Data can be represented in various forms, including tables, graphs, and charts.
• Tables organize data in rows and columns.
• Graphs visualize relationships between variables.
• Charts display categorical data.

The Importance of Science

• Science advances knowledge and understanding of the natural world.
• Science drives technological innovation and economic growth.
• Science informs public policy and decision-making.
• Science enhances critical thinking and problem-solving skills.
• Science contributes to human well-being and quality of life.

Emerging Fields in Science

• Biotechnology applies biological principles to develop new technologies and products.
• Nanotechnology manipulates matter at the atomic and molecular levels.
• Information technology deals with the storage, retrieval, and processing of information.
• Artificial intelligence focuses on creating intelligent machines and systems.
• Quantum computing uses quantum mechanics to solve complex problems.