Introduction to Science

The provided text is identical to the existing notes, therefore, no updates are made. Science is a systematic and organized approach to understanding the natural world through observation, experimentation, and the development of testable explanations.

• It encompasses a wide range of disciplines, including physics, chemistry, biology, astronomy, and geology.

Core Principles

• Science relies on empirical evidence, which is data collected through observation or experimentation.
• Scientific knowledge is provisional and subject to change based on new evidence.
• Objectivity is a key goal in science, aiming to minimize bias in data collection and interpretation.
• Skepticism is encouraged, with scientific claims requiring rigorous evaluation before acceptance.
• Parsimony, or Occam's razor, suggests that the simplest explanation is usually the best.

Scientific Method

• Observation involves noticing and describing phenomena.
• Hypothesis formulation is creating a testable explanation for an observation.
• Prediction involves stating what would happen if the hypothesis is correct.
• Experimentation is controlled testing of the prediction.
• Analysis involves interpreting the data collected during experimentation.
• Conclusion is determining whether the data support or reject the hypothesis.
• Communication of results is done through publications and presentations.

Branches of Science

• Natural sciences study the physical world.
• Social sciences study human behavior and societies.
• Formal sciences use logic and mathematics.
• Applied sciences apply scientific knowledge to practical problems.

Physics

• Physics is the study of matter, energy, and their interactions.
• It includes mechanics, thermodynamics, electromagnetism, optics, and nuclear physics.
• Classical mechanics deals with the motion of macroscopic objects.
• Thermodynamics is the study of heat and energy transfer.
• Electromagnetism explains the interactions of electric and magnetic fields.
• Quantum mechanics deals with the behavior of matter at the atomic and subatomic levels.

Chemistry

• Chemistry is the study of matter and its properties, as well as how matter changes.
• It includes the study of atoms, molecules, and their interactions.
• Organic chemistry focuses on carbon-containing compounds.
• Inorganic chemistry studies non-carbon-containing compounds.
• Biochemistry explores the chemistry of living organisms.
• Analytical chemistry involves the identification and quantification of substances.
• Physical chemistry applies physics principles to chemical systems.

Biology

• Biology is the study of living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, and distribution.
• It includes botany, zoology, microbiology, and genetics.
• Botany is the study of plants.
• Zoology is the study of animals.
• Microbiology is the study of microorganisms.
• Genetics is the study of heredity and variation.
• Ecology studies how organisms interact with each other and their environment.

Astronomy

• Astronomy is the study of celestial objects, space, and the physical universe as a whole.
• It includes the study of planets, stars, galaxies, and cosmology.
• Astrophysics applies physics and chemistry to astronomical objects and phenomena.
• Cosmology is the study of the origin, evolution, and future of the universe.

Geology

• Geology is the study of the Earth, its structure, composition, and processes.
• It includes the study of rocks, minerals, landforms, and geological history.
• Geophysics uses physics to study the Earth.
• Geochemistry applies chemistry to study the Earth.
• Paleontology is the study of prehistoric life.

Measurement and Units

• The International System of Units (SI) is the standard system of measurement used in science.
• Base units include the meter (m) for length, kilogram (kg) for mass, second (s) for time, ampere (A) for electric current, kelvin (K) for temperature, mole (mol) for amount of substance, and candela (cd) for luminous intensity.
• Scientific notation is used to express very large or very small numbers.

Data Analysis

• Statistics are used to analyze and interpret data.
• Mean, median, and mode are measures of central tendency.
• Standard deviation measures the spread of data around the mean.
• Graphs and charts are used to visually represent data.
• Regression analysis is used to model the relationship between variables.

Technology

• Scientific discoveries often lead to technological advancements.
• Technology is the application of scientific knowledge for practical purposes.
• Examples include the development of new materials, medicines, and energy sources.
• Technology also plays a role in scientific research through the development of new instruments and techniques.

Scientific Theories vs. Laws

• A scientific theory is a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world.
• It is based on a large body of evidence and can be used to make predictions.
• A scientific law is a descriptive statement or equation that reliably predicts events under certain conditions.
• Laws describe what will happen, while theories explain why it happens.

Error Analysis

• No measurement is perfect; all measurements have some degree of uncertainty.
• Errors can be systematic (consistent bias) or random (unpredictable fluctuations).
• Error analysis is the process of quantifying and minimizing errors.
• Precision refers to the repeatability of a measurement.
• Accuracy refers to how close a measurement is to the true value.

Ethics in Science

• Scientists have a responsibility to conduct research honestly and ethically.
• This includes avoiding plagiarism, fabricating data, and misrepresenting findings.
• Informed consent is required for research involving human subjects.
• Animal research must be conducted humanely and ethically.
• Conflicts of interest should be disclosed and managed.