Introduction to Science and Scientific Method

• A systematic and organized approach to understanding the natural world through observation, experimentation, and analysis is science.
• The goal of science is to discover and explain facts and phenomena, and to develop theories and laws.
• Science relies on empirical evidence and logical reasoning to construct testable explanations and predictions.
• Knowledge is advanced through the scientific method.

Branches of Science

• Natural sciences study the physical and natural world.
• Social sciences study human behavior and societies.
• Formal sciences study abstract structures and systems, such as logic and mathematics.
• Applied sciences apply existing scientific knowledge to develop practical applications, such as engineering and medicine.

Scientific Method

• A systematic approach to acquiring knowledge and understanding the natural world is the scientific method.
• Observation, formulating a hypothesis, making predictions, experimentation, and drawing conclusions are typically involved in the scientific method.
• The scientific method is iterative; the results of one study often lead to new questions and further research.
• Observation involves the systematic gathering of data about a phenomenon or event.
• A testable explanation for an observed phenomenon is a hypothesis.
• Predictions are specific statements about what should happen if the hypothesis is correct.
• Experimentation involves testing the predictions by manipulating variables and collecting data.
• Conclusions are drawn based on the analysis of the data, which may support or refute the hypothesis.

Key Concepts in Science

• Scientific theories are well-substantiated explanations of some aspect of the natural world, based on a body of facts repeatedly confirmed through observation and experiment.
• Scientific laws are descriptive statements or math equations that describe fundamental principles or regularities of nature.
• Models are representations of systems or processes to understand and make predictions about their behavior.
• Data are the raw materials of science and can be quantitative (numerical) or qualitative (descriptive).
• Evidence is data that supports or refutes a hypothesis or theory.
• Objectivity is the principle that scientific observations and conclusions should be based on evidence rather than personal opinions or biases.
• Skepticism is a critical attitude of questioning and evaluating claims before accepting them as true.

Measurement and Units

• Measurement involves quantifying the properties of objects or events using standardized units.
• The International System of Units (SI) is the standard system of units used in science.
• Base units in the SI include the meter (m) for length, the kilogram (kg) for mass, the second (s) for time, the ampere (A) for electric current, the kelvin (K) for temperature, the mole (mol) for amount of substance, and the candela (cd) for luminous intensity.
• Derived units are combinations of base units, such as the newton (N) for force (kg⋅m/s²) and the joule (J) for energy (kg⋅m²/s²).
• Accuracy refers to how close a measurement is to the true value.
• Precision refers to the repeatability or consistency of a measurement.

Experimentation

• Experiments are controlled studies designed to test hypotheses and to investigate cause-and-effect relationships.
• Independent variables are manipulated by the researcher to observe their effect on dependent variables.
• Dependent variables are measured to see how they are affected by changes in the independent variable.
• Control groups are used as a baseline for comparison and do not receive the experimental treatment.
• Experimental groups receive the experimental treatment.
• Confounding variables are factors that may influence the dependent variable but are not controlled by the researcher.
• Randomization involves assigning subjects to experimental groups randomly to minimize bias.
• Replication involves repeating an experiment multiple times to increase confidence in the results.

Data Analysis and Interpretation

• Data analysis involves summarizing, organizing, and interpreting data to identify patterns and relationships.
• Statistics are used to analyze quantitative data and determine the significance of experimental results.
• Descriptive statistics include measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode) and measures of variability (standard deviation, variance).
• Inferential statistics are used to make inferences about populations based on sample data and test hypotheses.
• Interpretation is aided by visually representing data with graphs and charts.
• Correlation measures the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables.
• Causation implies that one variable directly influences another.
• Statistical significance indicates the probability that the results of an experiment are due to chance.

Scientific Communication

• Scientists communicate their findings through publications in peer-reviewed journals, presentations at conferences, and other forms of dissemination.
• Peer review is a process in which experts in a field evaluate the quality and validity of scientific research before it is published.
• Scientific writing is clear, concise, and objective, and follows specific formats and conventions.
• Citations are used to give credit to the sources of information used in scientific writing.
• Open access publishing makes scientific research freely available to the public.
• Science communication to the public aims to increase understanding and appreciation of science.

Explore the foundations of science as a systematic approach to understanding the natural world through observation, experimentation, and analysis. Learn about the branches of science, including natural, social, formal, and applied sciences. Understand the scientific method.