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Questions and Answers
What component of blood primarily carries oxygen?
What component of blood primarily carries oxygen?
The molecular weight of O2 is greater than that of CO2.
The molecular weight of O2 is greater than that of CO2.
False
What factor significantly increases the saturation of hemoglobin with oxygen?
What factor significantly increases the saturation of hemoglobin with oxygen?
Partial pressure of oxygen (PO2)
The average saturation of hemoglobin is referred to as the percent __________.
The average saturation of hemoglobin is referred to as the percent __________.
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Match the mechanism of carbon dioxide transport with its description:
Match the mechanism of carbon dioxide transport with its description:
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What effect does low pH have on hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen?
What effect does low pH have on hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen?
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High partial pressure of carbon dioxide decreases the pH of blood and increases hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen.
High partial pressure of carbon dioxide decreases the pH of blood and increases hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen.
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What is the primary mechanism through which most carbon dioxide is transported in the blood?
What is the primary mechanism through which most carbon dioxide is transported in the blood?
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Increased temperature favors the ______ of oxygen to tissues.
Increased temperature favors the ______ of oxygen to tissues.
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Match the following factors with their effects on hemoglobin affinity for oxygen:
Match the following factors with their effects on hemoglobin affinity for oxygen:
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What role does 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate (BPG) play in relation to hemoglobin?
What role does 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate (BPG) play in relation to hemoglobin?
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Fetal hemoglobin has a lower affinity for oxygen compared to adult hemoglobin.
Fetal hemoglobin has a lower affinity for oxygen compared to adult hemoglobin.
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What is the main difference between fetal hemoglobin (Hb-F) and adult hemoglobin (Hb-A) regarding oxygen binding?
What is the main difference between fetal hemoglobin (Hb-F) and adult hemoglobin (Hb-A) regarding oxygen binding?
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Fetal hemoglobin (Hb-F) binds to 2,3-BPG.
Fetal hemoglobin (Hb-F) binds to 2,3-BPG.
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What percentage of carbon dioxide is transported in the form of bicarbonate (HCO3-) in the blood?
What percentage of carbon dioxide is transported in the form of bicarbonate (HCO3-) in the blood?
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At the systemic capillaries, CO2 is converted into H2CO3 by ___________.
At the systemic capillaries, CO2 is converted into H2CO3 by ___________.
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Match the following transport mechanisms with their corresponding percentage of carbon dioxide transport:
Match the following transport mechanisms with their corresponding percentage of carbon dioxide transport:
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Which of the following factors does NOT significantly affect hemoglobin saturation?
Which of the following factors does NOT significantly affect hemoglobin saturation?
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The chloride shift helps to maintain electrical balance in erythrocytes.
The chloride shift helps to maintain electrical balance in erythrocytes.
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What are the two main types of compounds formed when hemoglobin binds to carbon dioxide?
What are the two main types of compounds formed when hemoglobin binds to carbon dioxide?
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The process of ___________ ensures that CO2 can be eliminated at the pulmonary capillaries.
The process of ___________ ensures that CO2 can be eliminated at the pulmonary capillaries.
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What is the primary role of 2,3-BPG in relation to hemoglobin?
What is the primary role of 2,3-BPG in relation to hemoglobin?
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Study Notes
Learning Objectives
- Define respiration and the three phases
- Identify anatomical components of the upper and lower respiratory systems and their locations
- Explain how respiratory structures' structures match their functions
- List bones/tissues forming the nasal cavity
- Describe histological changes in the bronchial tree (epithelial lining, cartilage support)
- Explain how respiratory structures' histology relates to their physiology
- Explain inhalation and exhalation mechanics
- Define lung volumes and capacities
- Determine gas diffusion direction at respiratory surfaces
- Identify factors affecting hemoglobin saturation
- Compare/contrast oxygen and carbon dioxide transport
- Define the chloride shift and its significance in homeostasis
- Explain breathing control and the low blood pH negative feedback loop
- Describe exercise's effects on the respiratory system
- Explain how smoking affects respiratory function
Introduction to Respiration
- Respiration is the acquisition of oxygen and the elimination of carbon dioxide
- Three steps in the human body:
- Pulmonary ventilation
- Gas exchange between atmosphere and lung tissues 2. External respiration
- Gas exchange between lung tissues and blood 3. Internal respiration
- Gas exchange between blood and body tissues
Anatomy of the Respiratory System
- Upper respiratory system
- Nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, and associated structures
- Lower respiratory system
Upper Respiratory System
- The Nose
- Made of bone, cartilage, and connective tissue
- Contains the nasal cavity
- Air enters through external nares (nostrils)
- The Nasal Cavity
- Interior space of the nose
- Bounded by nasal bones and oral cavity
- Divided into left and right halves by the nasal septum
- Lined with mucous membranes containing conchae
- Vibrates to permit singing and speech
- Swirls inhaled air
Lower Respiratory System
- The Bronchi
- Trachea splits into the right and left bronchi
- Carina: ridge at the branch point, sensitive to mucous membrane; triggers cough reflex
- Bronchi branch into smaller tubes called bronchioles, which end in small sacs called terminal bronchioles
- Mucous membranes lining the bronchi change throughout the bronchial tree, with supporting cartilage gradually diminishing and smooth muscle increasing
- The Lungs
- Wrapped in pleural membranes
- Two serous membranes form a space called the pleural cavity, containing lubricating fluid to reduce friction during breathing
- Lungs are separated by the mediastinum
- The superior portion of each lung is the apex
- The inferior portion is the base
- Lobes (divided by oblique and horizontal fissures)
- Superior
- Middle
- Inferior
- Lobules: smaller compartments of each lobe, containing
- Bronchial branches
- Arterioles and venules
- Lymphatic vessels, all wrapped in elastic connective tissue
- Alveoli: microscopic air sacs of the lungs
- Lined with simple squamous epithelium
- Two types of alveolar cells:
- Type I: simple squamous epithelium
- Type II: non-ciliated cuboidal epithelium that produces surfactant, preventing collapse
Respiratory Membrane
- Thin membrane composed of alveoli and associated capillaries
- Layers, from superficial to deep:
- Alveolar wall (Type I and II alveolar cells and macrophages)
- Epithelial basement membrane
- Capillary basement membrane
Blood Supply to the Lungs
- Two sets of arteries
- Pulmonary arteries: bring deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle.
- Bronchial arteries: bring oxygenated blood from the aorta
Pulmonary Ventilation
- Inhalation: active process involving muscle contraction to expand the thoracic cavity and decrease pressure, causing air to flow in.
- Diaphragm: primary muscle, depresses/contracts to increase the volume
- External intercostals: assist in increasing volume
- Exhalation: passive process involving muscle relaxation and elastic recoil.
- Elastic recoil of the lungs and thoracic cavity decrease is the primary force, causing air to flow out.
- Internal intercostals, external obliques, internal obliques, transverse abdominis, and rectus abdominis (during forceful expiration) may also contract to help further reduce thoracic volume.
Regulation of Breathing
- Respiratory center: cluster of neurons in the brain stem (medulla oblongata and pons) that controls breathing.
- Medullary respiratory group (DRG): controls the basic rhythm of breathing; further divided into dorsal and ventral groups
- Pontine respiratory group (PRG): adjusts the rhythm of breathing, particularly during transitions between inhalation and exhalation
- Factors influencing breathing
- Central and peripheral chemoreceptors: respond to changes in blood CO2, O2, pH; send signals to the respiratory center to adjust breathing rate
- Cortical input: conscious control over breathing (talking, singing)
Factors affecting Respiration
- Partial pressure gradient: affects the rate and direction of gas diffusion. Lower partial pressures result in a slower rate.
- Surface area: larger surface areas facilitate faster diffusion rates.
- Distance: shorter distances between gas exchange sites lead to quicker and more efficient diffusion.
Oxygen Transport
- Hemoglobin (Hb) transports most oxygen in the blood.
- Hb binds to oxygen reversibly, forming oxyhemoglobin (HbO2)
- Factors affecting Hb saturation include partial pressure of oxygen, blood pH, temperature and partial pressure of carbon dioxide (PCO2).
Carbon Dioxide Transport
- CO2 is transported in three forms:
- Dissolved in plasma
- Bound to hemoglobin (carbaminohemoglobin)
- As bicarbonate ions (HCO3−)
Chloride Shift
- Movement of chloride ions (Cl−) across the erythrocyte membrane to maintain ionic balance during CO2 transport.
- Reverse chloride shift aids exhalation by removing HCO3−
Respiratory Processes
- External Respiration: gas exchange between the lungs & blood
- Internal Respiration: gas exchange between the blood & tissues
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Description
Test your knowledge on the respiratory system with this quiz. Covering the phases of respiration, anatomical components, and how structures relate to their functions, you'll explore key concepts like lung volumes and the mechanics of breathing. Perfect for students studying human biology or anatomy!
