Introduction to Research

Chapter 1: Key Science Skills

• This chapter explores scientific research, its process, and evaluation

Lesson 1A: Introduction to Research

• Focuses on identifying scientific research and the fundamentals of psychological research.

Scientific vs. Non-Scientific Ideas

• Scientific ideas rely on empirical evidence obtained through direct observation or experimentation
• Science aims to be objective, self-correcting, provisional, testable, and reliable, using systematic methodologies like experimentation and hypothesis-testing
• Findings contribute to public knowledge and undergo peer review
• Non-science lacks empirical evidence and scientific methods.
• Pseudoscience is a type of non-science claiming scientific status without using scientific methods

Examples of Pseudoscientific Approaches

• Astrology, numerology, and phrenology

Empirical Evidence

• Information obtained through direct and systematic observation or experimentation.

Non-Scientific Ideas

• Ideas formed without empirical evidence or the use of scientific methods or principles.

Pseudoscience

• Beliefs, theories, and practices mistakenly regarded as, or claiming to be, scientific

Demarcation Problem

• In the philosophy of science, distinguishing between science and non-science is called the 'demarcation problem'

The Scientific Method

• A procedure used to obtain knowledge that involves hypothesis formulation, testing, and re-testing through experimentation, observation, measurement, and recording
• This method begins with identifying a problem or research question

Scientific Method Steps

• Ask a question
• Research the question
• Form a hypothesis
• Test with an experiment or investigation
• Analyze data and results
• Results do or do not support hypothesis
• Communicate results
• Reproduce findings

Theory and Model

• A theory explains something or makes cause-and-effect predictions
• A model is a representation of a concept, process, or behavior, used to simplify understanding

Aim

• A statement outlining the purpose of an investigation.

Hypothesis

• A testable prediction about the outcome of an investigation
• It should be testable with inclusion of variables

Variable

• A condition or component of an experiment that can be measured or manipulated by the experimenter

Elements of Hypothesis

• Variables
• Population
• Direction

Null Hypothesis

• In scientific research, there is another type of hypothesis called the 'null hypothesis'
• It is often a version of an experiment's main hypothesis
• The null hypothesis is stated as if there is no relationship between IV and DV
• Having a null hypothesis allows to communicate a clear conclusion, regardless of whether the primary hypothesis is supported or rejected.

Independent Variable (IV)

• The variable that is manipulated by the researcher
• It is assumed to have a direct effect on the dependent variable.

Dependent Variable (DV)

• The variable measured by the researcher in an experiment for changes it may experience due to the effect of the independent variable.

Theory

• A proposition or set of principles used to explain something or make predictions about relationships between concepts

Model

• A representation of a concept, process, or behavior, often made to simplify or make something easier to understand

Lesson 1B: Scientific Research Methodologies

• Focuses on the different scientific investigation methodologies researchers can use and how to evaluate them

Investigation Methodologies (also known as research methodologies)

• Any of the different processes, techniques, and/or types of studies researchers use

Types of Psychological Studies

• Controlled experiments, case studies, and correlational studies

Steps to evaluate data

Controlled Experiments

• Measure the causal relationship between one IV and DV, controlling all other variables
• Researchers aim to control variables outside the independent variable, such as controlling influence, to influence the dependent variable
• It allows researchers to be manipulate the variables of interest (independent variables)

Examples of Investigation methodologies

• Direct observation, qualitative interviews, questionnaires, focus groups and yarning circles

Correlational Study

• A type of investigation in which researchers observe and measure the relationship between two or more variables without manipulation
• It correlates two or more variables to check their strength and relationship
• Correlational studies are conducted to identify factors of importance in a phenomena, enabling predictions and to test its validity
• The relationship is used to predict outcomes

Correlation

• Can be measured and it can have zero relationship (no relation to IV and DV), positive relationship (when the IV increases, the DV increases), and negative relationship (when the IV increase, the DV decreases).

Fieldwork

• A study that happen beyond the laboratory with direct environment, people, and situations.
• Collection of data by the researcher through direct qualitative and quantitative samples.
• Fieldwork is used to determine IV and DV rather than causation
• Used to collectedata in a real-world that meets the real world

Classification and Identification - other Processes and Techniques

• Classification (the arrangement of anything , objects, or results , into manageable sets
• Identification a process to recognize its attributes to belong particular to specific sets
• Used for build other objects, theories, and predictions.

Lesson 1C: Population, Sample, and Sampling

• Addresses how the participants selected for a study

Population

• The group of people who are the focus of the research and from which the sample is drawn

Sample

• A subset of the research population who participate in a study

Generalizability

• The ability for result sample's to be used to make conclusions about the wider research population

Representative

• Representative sample are to contain equal characteristics.

Demographic Characteristics for population

Sampling Technique

• The way as sample is selected to give a clear indication

Techniques for creating the data

• Convenience Sampling
• Random Sampling
• Stratified Sampling

Convenience Sampling

• Any sampling technique that is easy for researcher of population that have access than using random approach

Random sampling

• technique to have a procedure to every member of the population that the change selected

Stratified sampling

• That to technique to to have a population where each people of sample subgroup is proportionally represented

Allocation

To allocate subject data sample's or condition's in an equal portion

Lesson ID: Error and Bias

• This describes the variables or things that impact in a bad way for results are not always in the scientific field or are not good in a way to impact results
• Its are related to errors or is.

Extraneous Variable:

• Things who impact the results , that are not independent results

Confounding Variable:

• A variable , of direct affect affect dependent , outside independent variables
• Confounding that was not for to have systematically directly affect or the dependent

To be important:

1. Researcher to have small samples
2. To a best investigation , best way for within experiment

Lesson 1E: Organising and Interpreting Date

• To categorize

Qualitative

• What are the descriptions or to interpret

To to not qualitative

1. Researcher to not to to not know , but be best

Lesson 1F: Evaluate that

• Rigorous methods
• Researchers determine state in its data, to be what it is claim with a high degree
• internal state or externals state , are related in some context , the state to have its validity

Lesson 1G: Concept

Concept to follow to have a investigation or study.

• Beneficence
• Integrity, in its to all results
• Justice , is just or a fair deal's from to be fair
• No harm and to value respect

All people have rights and considerations.

1. To have some ethics
2. Follow by all results