Introduction to Public Health Concepts

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Questions and Answers

What phase follows the pre-pathogenesis phase in the natural history of disease?

Termination phase

Chronic phase

Prevention phase

Pathogenesis phase (correct)

Which of the following factors is considered a non-modifiable risk factor?

Hypertension

Sex (correct)

Smoking

Obesity

Which of the following is NOT considered a social agent affecting health?

Genetic factors (correct)

Education

Poverty

Smoking

Which type of diseases are explained by multiple factors rather than the germ theory?

Chronic/non-communicable diseases Signup and view all the answers

Which factor would be classified as a modifiable risk factor?

Physical inactivity Signup and view all the answers

Which of these aspects is part of socio-economic factors affecting health?

Cultural values Signup and view all the answers

What does the termination phase of disease involve?

Recovery, death, or disability Signup and view all the answers

Chronic friction and mechanical agents are examples of which type of factor?

Environmental factors Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary goal of public health?

To ensure adequate living standards for everyone Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a component of public health as defined in the content?

Treatment of diseases in hospitals Signup and view all the answers

Which field is primarily concerned with occupational health?

Environmental health Signup and view all the answers

The process of mobilizing resources to tackle health problems is best described as what?

Public health Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following disciplines is concerned with the studies of health services quality?

Health administration Signup and view all the answers

What is an essential aspect of public health efforts?

Preventing diseases through community action Signup and view all the answers

Which of these is a focus area within community medicine?

Non-communicable diseases Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about public health is true?

It aims to achieve health equity through social policies. Signup and view all the answers

How does community diagnosis help in public health?

It establishes the rates of mortality and morbidity in a community. Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of planning is emphasized in community health?

Rational use of limited resources based on epidemiological data. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary aim of searching for causes and risk factors in epidemiology?

To establish causal or risk factors for diseases. Signup and view all the answers

In which way is the epidemiologist's role distinct from that of a clinician?

Epidemiologists have a broader perspective on disease patterns in communities. Signup and view all the answers

Why are evaluations necessary after disease prevention measures are implemented?

To assess the impact of health services on community problems. Signup and view all the answers

What does completing the natural history of disease involve?

Understanding the interactions between agents, hosts, and environmental factors. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following examples illustrates a measure of individual risk?

Evaluating the chance of bearing a child with a hereditary disorder. Signup and view all the answers

What are fluctuations in health and disease patterns indicative of?

The dynamic nature of health and disease over time. Signup and view all the answers

What factor significantly affects the speed of spread during an epidemic?

The herd immunity of the community Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following represents a cyclic trend in disease occurrence?

Measles outbreaks occurring every 6-7 years Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of a chronic disease that shows a slow epidemic?

Diabetes Signup and view all the answers

What primarily causes seasonal variations in disease incidence?

Environmental conditions Signup and view all the answers

In observational descriptive studies, what is a case series study?

A summary of multiple case reports Signup and view all the answers

Which type of epidemic is characterized by a gradual rise in cases over a long period?

Slow epidemic Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'secular trend' refer to in epidemiology?

Long-term changes in disease occurrence Signup and view all the answers

Which disease is typically associated with seasonal outbreaks in summer?

Skin infections Signup and view all the answers

What is the main purpose of a case control study?

To compare exposure rates between cases and controls Signup and view all the answers

What is a confounding factor in a case control study?

A factor that distorts the relationship between exposure and disease Signup and view all the answers

How should information about exposure be collected in a case control study?

Through interviews, questionnaires, or past records Signup and view all the answers

What does the odds ratio measure in a case control study?

The strength of association between a risk factor and an outcome Signup and view all the answers

What is the formula used to calculate the odds ratio?

$rac{a imes d}{b imes c}$ Signup and view all the answers

Which type of bias involves the knowledge of the risk factor affecting the selection of controls?

Selection bias Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes Berkson's bias?

Bias arising from hospital admission rates Signup and view all the answers

What is the exposure rate among cases calculated from the given data?

40% Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Definition of Public Health

Public health is the practice of preventing disease, promoting health and prolonging life through organized community efforts.
Combines sciences, skills, and beliefs to improve the health of individuals through collective actions
Key aspects include: sanitation of the environment, control of communicable diseases, education on personal hygiene, medical services for early diagnosis, ensuring adequate living standards for health maintenance.

Multifactorial Causation and Web of Causation

The cause of some diseases (e.g. cancer, heart disease, mental illnesses) involve many factors.
These factors can be social, economic, cultural, genetic and psychological.

Natural History of Disease

It is the way a disease evolves over time from the earliest stage to its termination.
Consists of 3 phases: pre-pathogenesis (before the onset of disease), pathogenesis (within humans) and the termination phase (resulting in recovery, death, or disability).

Risk Factors and Risk Groups

An aspect of lifestyle, environmental exposure, or inherited characteristic that's associated with health conditions.
Can be modifiable (smoking, hypertension, etc) or non-modifiable (age, sex, race, etc)
Individual, family, group or community can be affected by risk factors.

Historical Study

It compares rates from different time periods to asses if the community is improving.
Health and disease patterns change over time.
Example – small pox is no longer common, while legionnaires' disease, Lassa fever and AIDS are new diseases.

Community Diagnosis

Identifies and quantifies health problems within a community.
Uses mortality and morbidity rates (ratios).
Helps prioritize disease control and prevention.
Provides new knowledge about disease distribution.

Planning and Evaluation

Epidemiological information is important for planning healthcare services.
Resources must be used rationally.
The impact of healthcare services on people's health must be assessed.

Evaluation of Individual's Risks and Chances

Measures the degree of risk in the population.
Uses absolute risk (incidence and specific rates), relative risk, and attributable risk to assess risk factors.
Example - the risk of having a child with Down syndrome or other hereditary disorders.

Syndrome Identification

Epidemiological investigations can help define and refine health syndromes.

Completing the Natural History Of Disease

Study patterns, in relation to environmental factors, host, and agent, can complete the natural history of specific diseases.

Searching For Causes and Risk Factors

Epidemiological research can help identify the factors that influence the presence or absence of disease or health.
Example: Rubella is the cause of congenital defects in a newborn.

Epidemics

Types: common source epidemic, propagated epidemic, slow epidemic.
A common source epidemic has a sharp rise and a rapid decline.
A propagated epidemic rises gradually and takes longer to decline.
A slow epidemic has a long timeframe (years) for chronic diseases (diabetes, hypertension, etc).

Periodic Fluctuations

Variations: seasonal and cyclic.
Seasonal variations – Changes in the number of cases depending on conditions like temperature, humidity, rainfall, and vector breeding (e.g., measles in spring, gastrointestinal infections in summer, and skin and respiratory infections in winter).
Cyclic trend - Diseases occur in cycles over time (e.g., measles every 6-7 years and rubella every 6-9 years).

Long-Term or Secular Trends

Changes in diseases over several years or decades.
Examples – coronary heart disease, lung cancer, diabetes.

Types of Descriptive Studies

Observational descriptive studies (case report, case series) and analytical descriptive studies (cross-sectional).
A case report is a study of one case of unexpected outcome or side effect (e.g., retrolental fibrosis of the retina and blindness in newborns due to hyperbaric oxygen).
A case series is a collection of case reports that could signal an impending epidemic (e.g., cases of acute H1N1).
Cross-sectional studies measure disease prevalence at a specific time (e.g., prevalence of anemia in children in a community 4 years after the implementation of malnutrition control program).

Case Control Study

Used to determine the relationship between a risk factor and a disease.
Compares people with the disease (cases) to people without the disease (controls).
Evaluates the exposure to a suspected risk factor in both groups.
Provides an estimate of the odds ratio, which measures the association between the risk factor and the disease.
Needs to address potential bias: selection bias, recall bias, interview bias, information bias, confounders, and Berkesonian bias.

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Description

This quiz covers the foundational definitions of public health, emphasizing its role in preventing disease and promoting collective health efforts. Additionally, it discusses multifactorial causation and the natural history of diseases, exploring their evolution and contributing factors.