Introduction to Psychology

Definition of Psychology

• Psychology originates from the Greek words "Psyche" (mind) and "logia"/"logos" (the study of something).
• It is the scientific study of overt behavior and mental processes.
• Psychology explains how people think, feel, and act, both individually and in groups.

Myths About Psychology

• Psychology is not mind or face reading.
• It is more than just common sense.
• Studying psychology does not mean someone is mentally disturbed.
• Psychologists do not only work in hospitals or with the mentally ill.
• Psychologists do not possess spiritual powers or foretell the future.

Pseudo Psychology

• Pseudo psychology refers to false, unscientific belief systems presented as behavioral explanations.
• Examples of pseudo psychology: palmistry, phrenology, graphology, and astrology.

Branches of Psychology

• Pure psychology is a theoretical science focused on expanding and developing human understanding.
• Pure psychologists research and identify processes underlying individual behaviors.
• Applied psychology is a practical science aimed at improving human life and behavior.
• Applied psychologists utilize psychological theories to describe, explain, predict, and control behavior in various fields.

Subfields of Psychology

• Clinical psychology applies psychological principles to assist individuals with mental health or psychological disorders through psychotherapy and treatment development.
• Industrial/Organizational psychology studies behavior in organizations to improve work environments, human relations, and employee selection.
• Educational psychology investigates classroom dynamics, teaching methods, and learning processes to develop educational tests and evaluate programs.
• Social psychology examines human social behavior, including attitudes, conformity, persuasion, prejudice, friendship, and aggression.
• Forensic psychology studies crime, prevention, rehabilitation, prisons, and courtroom dynamics, also selecting candidates for police work.
• Child psychology studies conscious and subconscious childhood development by observing interactions with parents and the world.
• Parapsychology investigates paranormal phenomena like telepathy and telekinesis, testing their existence and nature.
• Military psychology applies psychological principles to military environments, covering recruitment, training, motivation, and support of military personnel.

Developmental Psychology

• Developmental psychology studies human growth and changes across the lifespan, including physical, cognitive, social, and emotional aspects.
• Psychologists in this field research how people grow, develop, and adapt through different life stages.
• A primary goal is to help individuals reach their full potential.

Goals of Developmental Psychology

• Description involves detailing behaviors across the human lifespan.
• Explanation seeks to understand why people behave as they do and what factors influence these behaviors.
• Prediction aims to forecast how individuals will think and act, allowing for anticipation of developmental changes.
• Change focuses on influencing and controlling behavior to create lasting improvements in people’s lives.

Development

• Development is defined as orderly, progressive changes over time, from conception to death.
• Development encompasses both growth and maturation.

Growth and Maturation

• Growth refers to the physical aspect of development and can be measured, affected by genetics.
• Maturation involves intellectual and emotional development.
• It is typically not quantifiable and influenced by genetics.
• Maturation describes qualitative changes in an individual at a specific life stage, enabling certain task performances.

Learning

• Learning is the acquisition of knowledge or experience.
• It requires environmental influence.
• It is defined as knowledge gained through study or a change in behavior through experience.

Domains of Development

• Physical domain includes changes in body size, proportions, appearance, body systems, perceptual and motor capacities, and physical health.
• Cognitive domain includes changes in intellectual abilities, encompassing attention, memory, academic knowledge, problem-solving, creativity, and language.
• Socioemotional domain includes changes in emotional communication, self-understanding, interpersonal skills, friendships, intimate relationships, and moral reasoning.

Principles of Human Development

• It follows set principles characterizing the pattern and process of growth and development.
• Cephalocaudal principle states development progresses from top to bottom (head to legs).
• Proximodistal principle states development moves from the center of the body outward.
• Spinal cord forms before limbs; the limbs form before hands and feet, and the hands and feet develop before fingers and toes.
• Orthogenetic principle states development progresses from simple to complex.
• This implies mastery of simple tasks lays the foundation for more complex tasks.

Key Aspects of Development

• Development is continuous throughout life, even after maturity.
• Development follows a sequential pattern specific to each species.
• Development proceeds from general to specific, beginning with general movements that evolve into specific actions.
• Development is gradual and cumulative but doesn't happen suddenly.
• The rate of development varies among individuals.
• Development is predictable, with physiological and psychological potential identifiable through observation and testing.
• Development is impacted by hereditary and environmental factors, with poor nutrition potentially impairing growth and intellectual abilities.
• Most traits correlate in development.

Educational Implications of the Principles

• Human development directions should inform planning activities to ensure student satisfaction.
• School programs should be adjusted to suit student variations.
• Teachers and parents should consider the maturation of students to avoid demands beyond their developmental stages.

Male Reproductive System

• The male reproductive system includes organs that make up the male reproductive and urinary systems.
• These organs include the bladder, the seminal vesicle, epididymis, urethra, prostrate gland, pubic bone etc.
• The penis is for sexual intercourse, allowing semen and urine to exit.
• The testes produce testosterone and sperm.
• The scrotum protects the testes.
• The epididymis carries and stores sperm cells from the testes.
• The Urethra carries urine from the bladder and ejaculates semen during orgasm.
• The prostate gland produces seminal fluid to nourish and transport sperm.
• The bladder stores urine.
• Seminal vesicles produce a sugar-rich fluid that provides sperm with energy and motility.
• The pubic bone protects internal organs.
• The ductus/vas deferens transports mature sperm to the urethra for ejaculation.

Female Reproductive System

• The oviduct/fallopian tube transports ova from the ovaries to the uterus.
• Fertilization occurs here.
• The ovaries produce ova.
• The uterus holds and nourishes a developing fetus.
• The corpus luteum releases progesterone to prepare the uterus for pregnancy.
• The endometrium prepares the uterus for implantation, supports pregnancy, and facilitates menstruation.
• The myometrium contracts rhythmically during childbirth.
• The cervix allows sperm passage and produces mucus to aid sperm entry.
• The vagina receives the penis during intercourse and serves as the birth canal.
• Follicles secrete hormones influencing the menstrual cycle, each with the potential to release an egg for fertilization.

Conception

• Females of reproductive age experience monthly cycles of hormonal activity.
• With each cycle, a woman’s body prepares for a potential pregnancy.
• Menstruation is the periodic shedding of the uterine lining.
• The average menstrual cycle takes about 28 days.
• These phases include the follicular phase (development of the egg), the ovulatory phase (release of the egg) and then the luteal phase (hormone levels decrease if the egg does not implant).
• Conception starts when a group of eggs inside a woman's ovaries starts to grow in small, fluid filled sacs called follicles.
• Ovulation happens about 2 weeks before the next period.
• After the egg leaves the follicle, the follicle develops into something called the corpus luteum which releases a hormone that helps thicken the lining of the uterus, getting it ready for the egg.
• The egg then travels to the Fallopian Tube where it waits around 24 hours for a single sperm to fertilize it.
• Conception occurs when a sperm cell combines with an egg cell.
• If no sperm is around to fertilize the egg, it moves through the uterus and disintegrates. Hormone levels then go back to normal.
• Your body sheds the thick lining of the uterus, and your period starts (menstruation).

Prenatal Development

• Prenatal development ranges from conception to birth.
• It takes 9 months for the baby to fully develop before birth.
• It comprises three trimesters in medicine, or the germinal stage, the embryonic stage, and the fetal stage in psychology.

The Germinal Stage

• The germinal stage occurs from 0–2 weeks.
• During fertilization, the egg changes so other sperm cannot enter.
• The sperm determines the baby's sex. If the sperm has a Y chromosome, your baby will be a boy. If it has an X chromosome, the baby will be a girl.
• The zygote begins dividing rapidly through cleavage into blastomeres.
• The group moves along the fallopian tube toward the uterus.
• Approximately sixteen cells have formed about sixty hours after fertilization.
• Three days post-fertilization, the cells enter the uterus.
• Implantation, the blastocyst implants into the uterine wall, occurs around six days after conception.
• Implantation marks the conclusion of the germinal stage and the start of the embryonic stage.
• The pregnancy terminates if implantation fails. If it implants itself in the fallopian tube (oviduct), then ectopic pregnancy results.

The Embryonic Stage

• The embryonic stage starts after implantation and continues until eight weeks post-conception.
• Cells rapidly divide and clusters of cells begin to differentiate.
• Three layers known as germ layers form through gastrulation: the ectoderm (outer layer), the mesoderm (middle layer), and the endoderm (inner layer).
• Each germ layer differentiates into varied tissues and structures as the embryo develops.
• By the end of the embryonic stage, the embryo has all necessary internal and external structures.
• It is now referred to as a fetus.

The Fetal Stage

• Prenatal development is at its most dramatic during the fetal stage.
• By eight weeks, a fetus is approximately 3 centimeters (1.2 inches) in length and weighs about 3 grams (0.1 ounce).
• By the time the fetus is considered full-term at 38 weeks gestation, he or she may be 50 centimeters (20 inches) or 3.3 kilograms (7.3 pounds).
• Although all the organ systems were formed during embryonic development, they continue to develop and grow during the fetal stage.

Critical Periods in Prenatal Development

• Critical periods refer to when delicate and also important organs and systems in the body are formed.
• There will be abnormalities when uterine wall is not conducive.
• The critical periods are first trimester after conception, as well as the 7th and 9th months.

Labour

• Labour is the process by which the fetus and the placenta leave the uterus.
• Delivery can occur through the vagina or by cesarean section.
• Factors contributing to caesarian birth include prolonged labor, abnormal positioning, fetal distress, birth defects, repeated cesarean births, and chronic health conditions.

Stages of Labour

• The first stage begins with the woman's first contractions and continues until she is dilated fully (10 centimeters, or 4 inches).
• The second stage begins with complete dilation of the cervix and ends with the actual birth. The pregnant woman begins to push downward at this stage.
• The third stage begins with the birth and ends with the completed delivery of the placenta and afterbirth.

Chromosomes

• Chromosomes are thread-like structures in the nucleus of animal and plant cells.
• Each human has 46 chromosomes, 23 from each parent.
• Twenty-two (22) are autosomes and the 23rd is the sex chromosome (XX for females, XY for males).
• A typical human cell is made up of 44 autosomes and 2 sex chromosomes.

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

• It is an extremely long chain of molecules that contains all the information necessary for the life functions of a cell and makes each type of living creature unique.

Genes

• Genes are the basic unit of heredity and a particular section of DNA that tells a cell how to make a particular protein.

Allele

• An allele is a version of a gene where an individual inherits two alleles for each gene, one from each parent. If the alleles are the same, the individual is homozygous for that gene and if the alleles are different, the individual is heterozygous.

Genotype and Phenotype

• Genotype is a person’s unique combination of genes or genetic makeup where a complete set of instructions on how that person’s body synthesizes proteins and thus functions.
• A phenotype is an individual's observable traits, e.g. height, eye color, and blood type.

Dominant and Recessive Genes/Alleles

• Genes/Alleles can be dominant or recessive.
• Dominant alleles show their effect even if the individual only has one copy of the allele (heterozygous?). The allele for brown eyes is dominant.
• if both alleles are dominant, it is called codominance, e.g., the blood group AB.
• Recessive alleles only show their effect if the individual has two copies of the allele (homozygous), for example, the allele for blue eyes.
• Characteristics passed through genetic inheritance include eye color and blood type.
• Some health conditions and diseases can be passed on genetically too.

Blood Group

• The alleles are A, B and O
• The A allele is dominant over the O allele
• A person with one A allele and one O allele (AO) has blood group A, therefore blood-group A is said to have a dominant inheritance pattern over blood group O.
• Mother has the alleles A and O (AO) therefore blood group will be A as the A allele is dominant, while the father has two O alleles (OO), meaning blood group is O. In this situation, each child has a 50% chance of blood group A (AO) and a 50% chance of blood group O (OO),.

Patterns of Genetic Inheritance

• Autosomal dominant where the gene is dominant, and is on a non-sex chromosome.
• Autosomal recessive where the gene is recessive, and is on a non-sex chromosome.
• X-linked dominant where the gene is dominant, and is on the X-chromosome.
• X-linked recessive where the gene is recessive, and is on the X-chromosome.
• Y-linked dominant where the gene is dominant on the Y-chromosome.
• Y-linked recessive where the gene is recessive on the Y-chromosome.

Gene Mutation

• A gene mutation is a change in one or more genes and is an alteration in the genetic material of a cell of a living organism that can be transmitted to the cell’s or the offspring.
• Some mutations can lead to genetic disorders or illnesses.
• There are hundreds of diseases caused by mutations in a single gene.

Sex-linked Disorders

• Involve the sex chromosome number 23 and occurs via dominant-recessive patterns.
• A recessive gene on the X chromosome is more likely to be expressed as the phenotype in males because the Y chromosome has no allele to contradict the gene.

Autosomal Disorders

• Caused by mutations in genes on the autosomes. Individuals have two copies of every autosomal gene, one inherited from each parent. Autosomal dominant disorders result from one copy of the gene.

Genetic or Chromosomal Disorders

• Genetic disorders are abnormalities in chromosomes inherited from one or both parents, producing diseases in offspring.
• Chromosomal disorders are an abnormality of chromosome numbers or structure resulting from an error in cell division

Genetic Sex-Linked Disorders

• Color Blindness: A recessive disorder (red and green colors) due to a defect of the retina, and a dominant gene which permits for color vision is situated on the X.
• Chromosome and the Y chromosome does not have this gene.
• Males will be color blind if the X chromosome has the gene.
• Hemophilia A and B results in the inability of the blood to clot, prevalent in males (1 in 5000 males) and can lead to death from internal bleeding; inheritance follows the same pattern as color blindness.

Chromosomal Sex Linked Disorders

• Fragile X Syndrome results from the breakage of the tip of an X chromosome that results in severe mental retardation, speech defects and severe deficits in interpersonal interaction and usually males are more severely affected
• Klinefelter Syndrome (XXY) results in males with an extra X chromosome with characteristics such as relatively high pitched voices, feminine contours, breast enlargement, little facial or body hair, sterile, small testes, an inch taller than the average male, likely to be overweight, learning difficulties as children
• Super Male Syndrome (XYY) result in males inheriting an extra Y chromosome with physical characteristics such as height of above 6ft., slender during adolescence, severe facial acne, poor co-ordination. Has occurred in 1 in 900 births or as rare as 1 in 1500 or 2000
• Super Female/Triple X Syndrome (XXX) or Trisomy 47 results when females inherit three X chromosomes. This results in a female an inch taller than the average female, with long legs and slender torso, emotionally immature for size during childhood and usually fertile but may have slight learning difficulties and usually in the low range of normal intelligence
• Turner’s Syndrome (XO) is due to abnormal sex chromosomes inherited by females who only inherit 1 X chromosome instead of 2 which results in being short in stature, webbed necks, small jaws and high arched palates, widely spaced breasts, broad shield shaped chests, turned elbows, ovaries do not develop normally and do not ovulate, slight mental retardation in some individuals.

Genetic Autosomal Disorders

• Huntington Disease is caused by a dominant gene on chromosome 4, with the defect manifested at the age of 35 where the defect causes the degeneration of neurons producing dementia and random jerking movements; death comes on an average of 12 years after the onset
• Phenylketonuria (PKA) is a recessive disorder caused by a defective gene on chromosome 12, occurring in about 1 of 10,000 people. Children with PKU are unable to metabolize phenylalanine, an amino acid causing a build-up in the body leading to brain damage with symptoms of intellectual disability, seizures, behavioral problems, and mental disorders. Treatment is available and children can develop average intelligence
• Rhesus factor (Rh) incompatibility is significant in pregnancies when an Rh+ child is born to an Rh- mother is predisposed to Rh disease, resulting in the immune response of the mother to the baby’s blood results ;n the break down of the baby’s red blood cells. The child may suffer complications such as jaundice, anemia, brain or heart damage or death in severe cases
• Sickle Cell Disease is a genetic condition in which red blood cells are not shaped as they should be and caused by mutation in a gene on chromosome 11 resulting in cells that get stuck together and block small blood vessels with symptoms of Anemia, Episodes of pain and swelling of hands and feet. The main sickling genotypes are AA, AS, SS, CC, AC and SC
• Albinism results in little or no production of the pigment melanin, which determines the color of the skin, hair and eyes and is usually inherited in an autosomal recessive manner

Chromosomal Autosomal Disorders

• Down Syndrome/Trisomy 21 is a chromosomal disorder causing flat facial features, small head and ears, short neck, bulging tongue, eyes that slant upward, atypically shaped ears, and poor muscle tone and is caused by a duplication or an extra copy of their 21st chromosome

Environmental Threats

• Harmful substances such as drugs or radiation that invade the womb is known as teratogens. This label originates from "teras" meaning "malformation."
• Teratogens are especially damaging in the embryonic stage because it is a critical period in prenatal development and the harm done depends on dose, heredity, influences and age.
• Factors: genetics of the mother and developing organism, as well as negative influences

Examples of Environmental Threats

• Prescription and Non-prescription Drugs
• Illegal Drugs
• Tobacco
• Alcohol
• Radiation
• Environmental Pollution from chemicals (Mercury, Lead, Mercury, Pesticides, Carbon monoxide )
• Maternal Disease (Syphilis, Rubella, STD’s, HIV/AIDs)
• Maternal Factors: Exercise , nutrition, drugs, poverty and emotional state

Alcohol

• Exposure can result in varied abnormalities in childhood and later which can be either fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD), partial fetal alcohol syndrome (p-FAS), and alcohol-related neurodevelopmental disorder (ARND)
• FASD is distinguished by physical, mental, and behavioral outcomes with fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) and has the characteristics of slow physical growth, facial abnormalities i.e. (short eyelid openings; a thin upper lip; a smooth or flattened philtrum) and brain injury resulting in small head, memory problems, language problems, overactivity, challenged with reasoning, motor coordination, or social skills.

Periods of Development

• Infancy spans the first year and toddlerhood spans the second, during which children take their first independent steps, marking a shift to greater autonomy.
• Childhood ranges from 2 to 11 years when the body becomes longer and leaner, motor skills are refined, and children become more self-controlled and self-sufficient.
• Adolescence ranges from 11 to 18 years old initiating the transition to adulthood.

Physical Development in Infancy

• Growth is so rapid and the consequences of neglect are so severe that gains are closely monitored. Newborns gain an ounce a day for several months. Birthweight typically doubles by 4 months and triples by a year. An average 7-pound newborn will be 21 pounds at 12 months.
• Physical growth in the second year is slower but still rapid. By 24 months, most children weigh almost 28 pounds.
• Newborns also grow in height—from about 20 inches at birth to about 34 inches at age 2.

Motor Skills in Infancy

• Motor skills are the learned abilities to move some part of the body, in actions ranging from a large leap to a flicker of the eyelid. Motor skills start with the newborn making reflexes which is an involuntary response
• Reflexes that maintain oxygen supply include breathing, hiccups and sneezes and thrashing.
• Reflexes that maintain constant body temperature with actions such as crying, shiver, and tuck their legs close to their bodies to get warm and pushing away blankets and then stay still to cool down
• Reflexes that manage feeding with the sucking reflex where newborns suck anything that touches their lips and the rooting reflex in which babies turn their mouths toward anything that brushes against their cheeks
• Babinski reflex. When a newborn’s feet are stroked, the toes fan upward.
• Stepping reflex. When newborns are held upright, feet touching a flat surface, they move their legs as if to walk.
• Swimming reflex. When held horizontally on their stomachs, newborns stretch out their arms and legs.
• Palmar grasping reflex. When something touches the palms, newborns grip it tightly.
• Moro reflex. When someone bangs on the table they are lying on, newborns fling their arms out and then bring them together on their chests, crying with wide open eyes.

Fine Motor Skills in Infancy

• Fine Motor Skills are the Physical abilities involving small body movements, especially of the hands and fingers. Finger movements are valuable, which enable humans to write, draw, type, tie, i.e. Movements of the tongue, jaw, lips, teeth, and toes are considered fine movements. Typically mouth skills precede hand skills by many months

Gross Motor Skills in Infancy

• Gross Motor Skills are defined as abilities involving large body movements, such as walking and jumping
• They in a cephalocaudal and proximodistal direction, supported sitting appears at 3 months while unsupported sitting appears at 6 months. Crawling appears at 8 to 10 months and standing and walking occurs at 1 year and above

Nutrition and Malnutrition

• Optimum growth requires newborns need to be breastfed.
• The WHO recommends 6 months exclusive breastfeeding with the following benefits for Baby: Balance of nutrition adjusts to age.
• Breast milk has micronutrients.
• Less infant illness, childhood asthma and better vision
• Less adult illness, including diabetes, cancer, heart disease
• Protection against diseases
• Benefits for Mother include easier bonding with baby, reduced risk of breast cancer and osteoporosis, natural contraception and satisfaction of meeting infant's need. Benefits for Mother also include easier bonding with baby and reduced risk of breast diseases

Malnutrition

• Malnutrition: Occurs when the child or newborn is not well fed and lacks nutrients in the right proportions. Example of malnutrition include Protein-calorie malnutrition, or a condition in which a person does not consume sufficient food, also stunting or the failure of children to grow to a normal height and Wasting or the tendency for children to be severely underweight for their age, along with Marasmus or a disease of severe protein-calorie malnutrition and Kwashiorkor also a disease of chronic malnutrition

Physical Development in Childhood

• Mastery of gross and fine motor skills results not only from body growth and maturation but also from extensive, active play
• Safe space to play with ample time, appropriate equipment, and active playmates are also crucial to have as the environment is third teacher
• Good nutrition is needed for healthy childhood development
• Appetite decreases between ages 2 and 6 because young children naturally grow more slowly than they did as infants and learning self help skills such as dressing oneself and mastering shoe tying skills
• The child also learns to draw and write.
• They begin to scribble, colour pictures at 3-4 years and are able make more realistic drawing at 6.
• Playing and exercise improves academic achievement

Physical Development in Adolescence

• One of the major physical changes is the onset of Puberty: occurring close to the end of childhood, happening between the first onrush of growth hormones and full adult size and usually lasts three to five years
• Menarche: A girl’s first menstrual period.
• Spermarche: A boy’s first ejaculation of sperm
• Signs of Puberty in Boys include Testicles getting bigger and the scrotum begins to thin and redden, the appearance of Pubic hair, and breasts can swell slightly temporarily
• Signs Of Puberty In Girls include their breasts begin to develop and grows larger in size. Pubic hair also starts to grow and may have first period/have a white vaginal discharge while getting acne

Physical Development Variation Factors in Adolescence

• Genetic: African Americans reach puberty earlier than European or Hispanic Americans.
• Gender: The average girl is two years ahead of the average boy: The female height spurt occurs before menarche.
• Nutrition: Heavy girls reach menarche years earlier than malnourished ones do.
• Stress: Stress hastens the hormonal onset of puberty, especially if a child’s parents are sick, drug-addicted, or divorced, or if the neighborhood is violent and impoverished.

Cognitive Development

• Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development focuses on understanding how children acquire knowledge and nature of intelligence; His theory suggests intelligence changes as children grow and move with four stages:
• Sensorimotor stage, birth to 18-24 months
• Preoperational stage, 2 to 7 years
• Concrete operational stage, 7 to 11 years
• Formal operational stage, ages 12 and up

Cognitive Development Continued

• The sequence of the stages is universal across cultures and follow the same invariant order

Stage 1 - Sensorimotor intelligence

• Infants think by using their senses and motor skills during the first period of cognitive development which stage one (birth to 1 month) is Reflexes, then stage two (1–4 months) is The first acquired adaptations involving reflexes
• Stage Three (4–8 months) involves Responding to people and objects e.g, clapping hands when mother says child’s name and Stage Four (8–12 months) involves New adaptation and anticipation or becoming more purposeful in responding to people and objects
• Stage Five (12–18 months) involves New means through active experimentation; being experimentation and creativity in actions and lastly Stage Six (18–24 months) involves the thoughts before doing or new ways of achieving a goal without resorting to trial and error
• Object permanence is The realization that objects still exist when no longer be seen

Stage 2 - Preoperational Thought

• children do not yet use logical operations.
• Language skills enables symbolic thought- when an object or word can stand for something else and animism or the child's belief that objects are alive
• Centration is the tendency to focus on only one aspect of a situation while Egocentrism is The tendency to think about other people as if everything revolves around them. This includes focus on appearance, static reasoning or thinking nothing changes and irreversibility

Stage 3 - Concrete operational thought

• Characterized by the ability to reason logically about direct experiences and perceptions, classification and seriation

Stage 4 - Formal Operational Thought

• Adolescents move past concrete operational thinking and consider abstractions and possibilities (assumptions without a relation to reality)
• Adolescent egocentrism: leads teens to believe in their own uniqueness, and to imagine that other people are also focused on them while also operating on personal fables and imaginary audiences

Cognitiva Development - key points

• Egocentrism and higher intelligence can coexist alongside Hypothetical thought and Deductive & Inductive reasoning

Lev Vygotsky:

• Vygotsky: Social Learning emphasized another side of early cognition, the social aspect. He stressed the power of culture (Learning is not done in isolation) Mentors teach or guide someone else and assist Zone of proximal development (ZPD) while creating use of Scaffolding to assist a learner needs

Socioemotional Development

• Infancy emotions includes happiness, sadness, anger, fear and social smile while in the first six weeks of birth
• Infants show distress when a familiar caregiver leaves and express concern when a stranger appears
• Self-awareness is a person’s realization that he/she is a distinct and separate individual and demonstrate attachement with care giver using proximity-seeking and through Contact-maintaining
• Secure attachment is when the infant obtains comfort from the presence of his or her caregiver and Insecure-avoidant attachment lacks connection and Insecure-resistant/ambivalent attachment results in anxiety

Socioemotional Development in Childhood and Adolescence

• Childhood- Children develop socioemotionally through play involving Pretend Play and Social Play, rough-and-tumble play andsociodramatic play
• AdolescenceParent–adolescent relationships are pivotal and monitor Adolescents while making the right choices while avoiding Peer pressure and the need for extensive sex education

Erik Erikson – Psychosocial Stages of Dev’t

• Trust vs. Mistrust- basic virtue is hope occur between ages 0- 1½ in which If care is received is consistent and predictable, develop a sense of trust that will allow them to feel secure
• Autonomy vs. Shame- basic virtue of this stage is will and occurs between ages 1½ - 3 as children develop increased independence.
• Initiative vs. Guilt- basic virtue of this stage is Purpose and the stage occurs when children begin to assert themselves more through interaction.
• Industry vs. Inferiority- in this stage which happens from ages 5-12 allows friendship and winning approval demonstrating competencies.
• Identity vs. Role Confusion basic virtue of this stage is Fidelity which occurs in which the teenager begins to know more about one’s self and place in the world.