Introduction to Psychology

What is Psychology?

• Psychology is a scientific study of observable actions (behavior), and thoughts, feelings and perceptions (mental processes).

Foundations of Psychology

• Wilhelm Wundt (1879) established the first psychology lab, is regarded as the "Father of Psychology".
• G. Stanley Hall brought psychology to the U.S. and was the first APA president.

Major Schools of Thought

• Structuralism (Wundt, Titchener) used introspection to analyze consciousness into basic elements but was criticized for being too subjective
• Functionalism (William James) focused on the purpose of consciousness and how it helps organisms adapt; influenced by Darwin's theory of natural selection
• Psychoanalytic Theory (Freud) emphasized that the unconscious mind shapes behavior, childhood experiences, repressed desires, and dream analysis
• Behaviorism (Watson, Skinner, Pavlov) focuses solely on the study of observable behavior
  • Watson conducted the Little Albert experiment (fear conditioning)
  • Skinner researched operant conditioning (reinforcement & punishment)
• Humanism (Maslow, Rogers) emphasized free will, personal growth, and self-actualization
• Cognitive Psychology studies mental processes such as thinking, memory, and problem-solving
• Biological Perspective examines how brain structures, neurotransmitters, and genetics influence behavior
• Evolutionary Psychology purports that behavior is shaped by natural selection.
• Cultural Psychology studies how culture influences thoughts and behaviors (individualistic vs. collectivist societies)

Themes in Psychology

• Psychology is empirical, based on evidence and research
• Explanations of behavior benefit from theoretical diversity
• Psychological concepts evolve in a sociohistorical context
• Behavior is typically determined by multiple causes
• Behavior is shaped by cultural heritage
• Heredity and environment jointly influence behavior
• People's experiences are highly subjective

The Scientific Method

• Consists of formulating a testable hypothesis, designing the study, collecting data (experiments, surveys, observations), analyzing results (statistics), and reporting findings (publishing research)

Types of Research Methods

• Experimental Research: (Cause & Effect)
  • Independent Variable (IV) is the factor that is manipulated
  • Dependent Variable (DV) is the outcome being measured
  • Control Groups and Experimental Groups ensure that changes in the DV are caused by the IV
  • Extraneous Variables are uncontrolled variables that may affect the DV
• Correlational Research examines Relationships, NOT Causation
  • Positive correlation (+1.00) means both variables increase together
  • Negative correlation (-1.00) means as one increases, the other decreases
  • No correlation (0) means there is no relationship
• Naturalistic Observation involves watching behavior in real-world settings without interference
• Case Studies are in-depth studies of one person or small group
• Surveys use questionnaires to gather self-reported data

Ethical Considerations in Research

• Informed consent requires participants must agree
• Confidentiality requires data must be private
• Debriefing is required when deception is used

Nervous System Overview

• Central Nervous System (CNS) consists of the brain & spinal cord, which controls most functions
• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
  • Somatic Nervous System deals with voluntary movement
  • Autonomic Nervous System deals with involuntary functions
    • Sympathetic ("fight or flight") increases heart rate and releases adrenaline
    • Parasympathetic ("rest and digest") lowers heart rate and calms body

Brain Structures & Functions

• Medulla regulates breathing and heart rate
• Cerebellum affects balance and coordination
• Thalamus is a sensory relay station
• Hypothalamus affects hunger, thirst, body temperature, and hormones
• Amygdala affects fear and emotions
• Hippocampus is responsible for memory formation
• Cerebral Cortex is responsible for higher cognitive functions

Neurotransmitters (Chemical Messengers)

• Dopamine (DA) affects pleasure, movement
  • Low levels are associated with Parkinson's, and high levels with Schizophrenia
• Serotonin (5-HT) affects mood and sleep
  • Low levels are associated with Depression
• Acetylcholine (ACh) affects muscle control and learning
  • Low levels are associated with Alzheimer's
• Norepinephrine (NE) affects alertness and arousal
  • Low levels are associated with ADHD
• Endorphins affect pain relief and pleasure
  • Can lead to Opioid addiction

Circadian Rhythms & Sleep

• The Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN) in the hypothalamus regulates Circadian Rhythms
• Disruptions (e.g., jet lag, night shifts) cause fatigue and irritability

Stages of Sleep

• NREM Stage 1 (Light Sleep) includes theta waves and hypnic jerks
• NREM Stage 2 (Deeper Sleep) includes sleep spindles, and the brain slows
• NREM Stage 3 (Deep Sleep/Slow-Wave Sleep) includes delta waves and body restoration
• REM Sleep (Dreaming) includes rapid eye movement and memory processing

Sleep Disorders

• Insomnia is difficulty sleeping
• Sleep Apnea is when breathing stops during sleep
• Narcolepsy is when sudden sleep attacks occur
• Sleepwalking occurs in deep sleep (Stage 3)

Theories of Dreaming

• Freud's Wish-Fulfillment theory claims that dreams reveal unconscious desires
• Activation-Synthesis Theory claims that dreams are the brain trying to make sense of random neural activity

Altered States of Consciousness

• Hypnosis increases suggestibility, but does NOT improve memory
• Meditation focuses attention and reduces stress

Psychoactive Drugs

• Depressants (alcohol, tranquilizers) slow the CNS and reduces anxiety
• Stimulants (caffeine, cocaine) increase alertness
• Hallucinogens (LSD, mushrooms) alter perception
• Opiates (morphine, heroin) cause pain relief, and are highly addictive

Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. Key figures include Wilhelm Wundt, considered the "Father of Psychology", and G. Stanley Hall, who introduced psychology to the U.S. Major schools of thought range from Structuralism and Functionalism to Psychoanalytic Theory and Behaviorism.