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What are the 3 broad domains of development divided into?
What are the 3 broad domains of development divided into?
Define 'Object Permanence' as described in the content.
Define 'Object Permanence' as described in the content.
Object permanence is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are not being perceived, heard, or seen.
During which stage of prenatal development does the Zygote change into a fluid-filled sac called the Blastocyst?
During which stage of prenatal development does the Zygote change into a fluid-filled sac called the Blastocyst?
Germinal stage
The embryonic stage is the most vulnerable to harmful influences from the environment.
The embryonic stage is the most vulnerable to harmful influences from the environment.
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According to Erikson's theory, how many stages does development proceed through?
According to Erikson's theory, how many stages does development proceed through?
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A child who receives warm and responsive care during the 1st year of life is likely to develop mistrust.
A child who receives warm and responsive care during the 1st year of life is likely to develop mistrust.
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What is the term Erikson uses to describe the psychosocial crisis in the first stage of development?
What is the term Erikson uses to describe the psychosocial crisis in the first stage of development?
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Bowlby is best known for the _______ Theory.
Bowlby is best known for the _______ Theory.
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Match the following attachment styles with their descriptions:
Match the following attachment styles with their descriptions:
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What is the belief of the attachment theory regarding the impact of early attachment relationships?
What is the belief of the attachment theory regarding the impact of early attachment relationships?
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Why is physical exercise important for healthy development during childhood?
Why is physical exercise important for healthy development during childhood?
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What concept did Piaget focus on in preschool children?
What concept did Piaget focus on in preschool children?
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Preschool children are classified as preoperational according to Piaget.
Preschool children are classified as preoperational according to Piaget.
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According to Piaget, preschool children lack skills of ______.
According to Piaget, preschool children lack skills of ______.
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Match the following stages of Erikson's psychosocial development with their corresponding age ranges:
Match the following stages of Erikson's psychosocial development with their corresponding age ranges:
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What is a key function of play in childhood development?
What is a key function of play in childhood development?
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Define psychology.
Define psychology.
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What does the term 'behaviour' refer to in psychology?
What does the term 'behaviour' refer to in psychology?
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What is the definition of 'mind' in psychology?
What is the definition of 'mind' in psychology?
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What are the goals of psychology?
What are the goals of psychology?
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Differentiate between basic research and applied research in psychology.
Differentiate between basic research and applied research in psychology.
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Define free-floating anxiety.
Define free-floating anxiety.
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What are some symptoms of anxiety disorders? Select all that apply
What are some symptoms of anxiety disorders? Select all that apply
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Social anxiety disorder is characterized by fear or anxiety about social situations where scrutiny by others is possible.
Social anxiety disorder is characterized by fear or anxiety about social situations where scrutiny by others is possible.
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What is the difference between major depressive disorder (MDD) and dysthymic disorder?
What is the difference between major depressive disorder (MDD) and dysthymic disorder?
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According to Erikson, in which stage of development do individuals face the conflict of Identity VS Role Confusion?
According to Erikson, in which stage of development do individuals face the conflict of Identity VS Role Confusion?
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What are Marcia's identity statuses concerned with?
What are Marcia's identity statuses concerned with?
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Generativity refers to the commitment to take care of the next generation.
Generativity refers to the commitment to take care of the next generation.
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What does Erikson's Stage 8 involve? Integrity VS _______
What does Erikson's Stage 8 involve? Integrity VS _______
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Psychopathology is the scientific study of mental ________.
Psychopathology is the scientific study of mental ________.
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Name one of the biological causes of depression.
Name one of the biological causes of depression.
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Which neurotransmitters are mentioned as having imbalances in depression?
Which neurotransmitters are mentioned as having imbalances in depression?
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Depressive episode may be preceded by a stressful life event.
Depressive episode may be preceded by a stressful life event.
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In Anorexia Nervosa, there is a lack of appetite induced by ____________.
In Anorexia Nervosa, there is a lack of appetite induced by ____________.
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Match the following severity levels of Anorexia Nervosa with the corresponding BMI ranges:
Match the following severity levels of Anorexia Nervosa with the corresponding BMI ranges:
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What happens when the action potential reaches the synaptic vesicles at the end of the axon?
What happens when the action potential reaches the synaptic vesicles at the end of the axon?
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What is the function of receptor sites on the dendrite?
What is the function of receptor sites on the dendrite?
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Only specific molecules of a certain shape can fit into the receptor sites on the dendrite.
Only specific molecules of a certain shape can fit into the receptor sites on the dendrite.
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The ion channels of the post synaptic neuron fire and allow __________ to rush in, activating the next cell.
The ion channels of the post synaptic neuron fire and allow __________ to rush in, activating the next cell.
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Match the following actions with their descriptions:
Match the following actions with their descriptions:
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What is neuroplasticity?
What is neuroplasticity?
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Damage to the CNS structure is always permanent.
Damage to the CNS structure is always permanent.
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What are the two divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System?
What are the two divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System?
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_______ insulates/coats the axon and speeds up transmission of information between nerve cells.
_______ insulates/coats the axon and speeds up transmission of information between nerve cells.
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Match the following components of a neuron with their functions:
Match the following components of a neuron with their functions:
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What are the different approaches to neuropsychological testing mentioned in the content?
What are the different approaches to neuropsychological testing mentioned in the content?
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What is the main purpose of the Standard (fixed) battery approach in neuropsychological testing?
What is the main purpose of the Standard (fixed) battery approach in neuropsychological testing?
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What is the Token Test used to assess?
What is the Token Test used to assess?
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MRI provides more structural detail of the brain than CT scans.
MRI provides more structural detail of the brain than CT scans.
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EEG records the ________ activity of the cortex just below the skull.
EEG records the ________ activity of the cortex just below the skull.
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Study Notes
Introduction to Psychology
- Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and the mind
- Scientific means unbiased and empirical
- Behavior refers to directly observable actions and responses
- Mind refers to internal states and processes (e.g., thoughts, feelings) inferred from observable responses
Goals of Psychology
- Description: what is happening, where, and to whom?
- Explanation: why is it happening?
- Prediction: when will it happen again?
- Control: how can it be changed?
Research in Psychology
- Basic research: knowledge-driven, concerned with "what is"
- Applied research: problem-focused, concerned with "how to"
Types of Psychologists
- Clinical psychologist
- Counselling psychologist
- Research psychologist
- Industrial psychologist
- Educational psychologist
- Psychologists must register with the HPCSA (Health Professions Council of South Africa)
Psychology in Perspective
- Influenced by philosophy, physiology, and physical science
Early Schools of Psychology
- Structuralism: analyzing consciousness into basic elements, led by Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener
- Functionalism: focusing on the functions of consciousness, led by William James
Three Influential Schools
- Gestalt psychology: studying the mental processing of information, focusing on the whole rather than individual parts
- Psychoanalysis: studying the unconscious mind, led by Sigmund Freud
- Behaviorism: focusing on observable behavior, led by Ivan Pavlov and John Watson
Contemporary Perspectives
- Psychodynamic/psychoanalytic theory: recognizing the importance of early childhood experiences and social relationships
- Behavioral perspective: believing that behavior is shaped by the environment
- Cognitive perspective: studying thought processes and mental processing
- Sociocultural perspective: examining the influence of society and culture on behavior
- Biopsychological perspective: studying the biological basis of behavior
- Evolutionary psychology: searching for the biological bases of universal mental characteristics
Levels of Analysis
- Biological level: examining the biological processes underlying behavior
- Cognitive level: studying thought processes and mental representations
- Environmental level: examining the role of the environment in shaping behavior
- Social level: examining the influence of social factors on behavior
A Brief History of Psychology in South Africa
- Beginnings of psychological services in South Africa: late 19th century to early 20th century
- Custodialism: locking people away in asylums
- Interventionism: intervening to help people with mental illnesses
- Standardization of intelligence tests: overemphasizing the role of heredity and racial differences
- The "poor white" problem: the fear of miscegenation and the need to maintain white economic superiority
Introduction to Developmental Psychology
- Developmental psychology: studying human development across the lifespan
- Divided into three broad domains: physical, cognitive, and psychosocial development
Nature and Nurture
- Biological and environmental factors interact to shape development
Prenatal Development
- Conception to birth: germinal stage (fertilization to 2 weeks), embryonic stage (2-8 weeks), and fetal stage (8 weeks to birth)
- Critical periods: vulnerability to teratogens and environmental influences
Prenatal Hazards
- Teratogens: any disease, drug, or environmental agent that can harm a developing fetus
- Examples: radiation, malaria, drugs, AIDS, tobacco, alcohol
Foetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)
- Characteristic pattern of abnormalities associated with alcohol intake during pregnancy
- Poor growth, damage to the central nervous system, and characteristic facial features
- Prevention: avoiding alcohol during pregnancy, education, prenatal screening, and improving maternal nutrition
Infancy
- Physical development: rapid growth, cephalocaudal and proximodistal development trends
- Cognitive development: studying what babies know about the world
- Sensory development, motor skills, and language development### Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development
- Piaget proposed that children's cognition passes through 4 distinct stages:
- The sensory motor stage (birth - around age 2)
- The preoperational stage (age 2-7)
- The concrete operational stage (age 7-11/12)
- The formal operational stage (age 11/12 - adulthood)
The Sensory Motor Stage (birth - around age 2)
- Infants use their senses and physical actions to learn about the world
- Infants think using their eyes, ears, hands, mouth, etc.
- Infants can't carry out many activities in their minds like adults can
- Much of infant behavior consists of reflexes, which are inborn and automatic responses to stimulation
- Examples of reflexes:
- Rooting reflex (stroking the cheek to stimulate sucking)
- Palmar grasp reflex (grabbing onto a finger)
- Sucking reflex (sucking on a finger)
- Infants gradually learn to coordinate their sensations and perceptions with their physical movements and actions
- Infants start to act intentionally to make things happen, such as shaking a rattle to make a sound
- During this stage, infants develop object permanence, which is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are not being perceived
Criticism of Piaget's Theory
- Some research suggests that infants may require an understanding of object permanence earlier than Piaget thought
- This research uses the "violation-of-expectation" method, where infants are habituated to a repeated stimulus and then shown a surprising event
Erikson's Psychosocial Theory
- Erikson's theory is based on the idea that development proceeds through 8 stages, each characterized by a particular crisis or conflict in social relationships
- Each crisis can be resolved in either a positive or negative way, and a positive resolution can enhance healthy development
- The stages are:
- Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust (birth - 1 year)
- Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1-2 years)
- ...and so on
Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust (birth - 1 year)
- If a child receives warm and responsive care during the 1st year, they are likely to develop a sense of trust
- Trust involves feeling confident about going out and exploring the world
- Mistrust occurs if a child is handled harshly or has to wait too long for comfort
- A positive resolution of the 1st psychosocial crisis (trust vs. mistrust) sets the stage for later healthy development
Attachment Theory
- Attachment refers to the close affectionate relationship between an infant and 1-2 caregivers
- Bowlby's attachment theory is based on the idea that the formation of a strong and secure emotional relationship between an infant and caregiver is crucial for healthy development
- The quality of the first attachment relationship has implications for later development, including relationships with friends, romantic partners, and future children
- Insecure attachments are associated with caregiver behavior that is insensitive, inconsistent, or rejecting
Factors Influencing Attachment Security
- Sensitive and responsive caregiving is crucial for attachment security
- Factors that influence attachment security include:
- Psychological resources of the caregiver
- Infant characteristics
- Contextual sources of stress and support
Day Care and Attachment
- Research evidence suggests that day care is not harmful to attachment
- The quality of care is more important than who provides it
- Good quality day care can make up for insensitive care at home
Childhood Development (± age 2 - puberty)
- Physical development:
- Growth rate slows down
- Body fat declines
- Gross and fine motor skills improve
- Exercise is important for healthy development
- Cognitive development:
- Piaget's preoperational stage (± 2-7 years)
- Children's thinking is still limited and egocentric
- Children can't use operations in their thinking
- Piaget's concrete operational stage (± 7-12 years)
- Children can think logically about concrete objects
- Egocentrism declines
- Children can conserve quantities and understand reversibility### Psychosocial Development
- Autonomy VS Shame & Doubt (1-3 yrs):
- Toddlers need to decide to do things for themselves to develop autonomy and independence
- Parents should give children a reasonable amount of free choice and be supportive and understanding
- Setting limits and guidance are also important to foster autonomy
- Initiative VS Guilt (3-6 yrs):
- Preschool children develop initiative as they think up and carry out new tasks and plans
- They learn to control their behavior to avoid harming others and feel guilty if they do something wrong
- Internalizing standards of parents, teachers, and authority figures helps children develop a sense of guilt
- Industry VS Inferiority (6-12 yrs):
- Children develop new mental and motor skills, leading to new demands from adults
- They learn and practice skills for future adult roles, such as reading, writing, and numeracy
- Education happens not only in school but also in families, where children learn socially responsible intelligence
Play
- Defined as pleasurable activity engaged in for its own sake
- Types of play:
- Practice play: trying out new skills
- Constructive play: using materials to create something
- Pretend play: transforming objects or environments to represent something else
- Games: engaged in for pleasure, with rules and competition
- Functions of play:
- Physical, social, and cognitive development
- Learning motor and cognitive skills
- Mastering emotional conflict and anxieties
- Developing understanding of self and society
Adolescence
- Period of transition from childhood to adulthood
- Recognized stage of life in many societies, marked by initiation rituals, religious ceremonies, etc.
- Typically begins around age 11-13 and carries through to ages 19-20 or until young people take on adult roles
- Physical Development:
- Puberty: adolescent growth spurt, primary and secondary sexual characteristics
- Cognitive Development:
- Piaget's formal operational stage: thinking systematically about abstract problems
- Adolescent egocentrism: imaginary audience and personal fable
- Psychosocial Development:
- Erikson's Stage 5: Identity VS Role Confusion
Adulthood
- Physical Development:
- Early adulthood: physical performance peaks, senescence begins
- Middle adulthood: physical decline becomes noticeable
- Late adulthood: outward signs of aging increase
- Cognitive Development:
- Fluid intelligence may decline from middle adulthood
- Crystallised intelligence increases
- Psychosocial Development:
- Erikson's Stage 6: Intimacy VS Isolation
- Erikson's Stage 7: Generativity VS Stagnation
- Erikson's Stage 8: Integrity VS Despair
Psychopathology
- Definition: the study of illness of the mind or psychological disorders
- Criteria for distinguishing disorders from normal behavior:
- Statistical deviance
- Maladaptiveness
- Personal distress
- Signs and symptoms of disorders:
- Difficulty sleeping or sleeping too much
- Difficulty concentrating
- Feeling tired most of the day
- Eating less or more than usual
- Worrying about a lot of different things
- History of mental illness:
- Early Era: demonic possession, exorcism, and trephination
- Ancient Era: Hippocrates' work on vital fluids and imbalance
- Asylum Era: treating patients with kindness and consideration
- Scientific Era: scientific discoveries, classification systems, and treatments
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Description
Learn the basics of psychology, including key definitions and goals of the field of study. Explore the scientific study of behavior and the mind, and understand the importance of observation.
