Introduction to Psychology

What is Psychology?

• Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
• Behavior includes observable actions like walking and talking.
• Mental processes are internal and non-observable, such as thinking and emotions.
• Psychologists study memory, language, reasoning, emotions, personality, and mental health.

The Four Goals of Psychology

• Describe: Determine what is happening.
• Explain: Understand why it is happening.
• Predict: Anticipate what will happen next.
• Influence (Control): Determine how to change it.
• Example: Social Anxiety Case
  • Describe: Avoids social events, looks tense, checks phone frequently.
  • Explain: Potential causes are fear of rejection, past negative experiences, and social media comparisons.
  • Predict: Small social gatherings or relaxation might help.
  • Influence: Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) can be used to reframe negative thoughts.

Careers in Psychology

• Clinical Psychology: Therapy for mental health.
• Cognitive Psychology: Studies thinking, memory, and perception.
• Social Psychology: Focuses on social behavior and interactions.
• Developmental Psychology: Studies human growth and changes.
• Forensic Psychology: Deals with psychology and law.
• Psychologists study behavior and mental processes and cannot prescribe medication.
• Psychiatrists focus on mental disorders and can prescribe medication.
• Psychologists are licensed by OPQ in Quebec.
• Psychiatrists are licensed as doctors.
• Psychologists work in multidisciplinary teams, bringing unique knowledge, skills and perspectives for a holistic approach.

Psychology vs. Common Sense

• Psychology is a science that uses the scientific method, observation, experimentation, and empirical data.
• Pseudo-psychology lacks scientific evidence and validity, despite appearing scientific.

Examples of Pseudo-Science

• Stone Age Trephining: Drilling skull holes to release “evil spirits”.
• Phrenology: Determining personality traits from skull bumps.
• Graphology: Analyzing handwriting to reveal personality.
• Astrology: Using stars to determine personality and fate.

The Barnum Effect

• People believe vague, general statements are personally meaningful.
• This occurs because people seek meaning and connections, and positive statements feel more personal.
• Exaggerated claims, absences connection to other research, lack of self-correction, lack of scholarly review, and using "proof" instead of "evidence" are signs of pseudoscience.

Critical Thinking in Psychology

• Critical thinking involves evaluating, analyzing, and questioning information before accepting it.
• Principles of Critical Thinking
  • Empirical Testing: All claims should be tested with data.
  • Evaluate Evidence Quality: Not all sources are reliable.
  • Expertise ≠ Truth: Authority does not always mean correctness.
  • Keep an Open Mind: Consider all possibilities before concluding.
• Critical thinking separates science from pseudoscience, improves decision-making, and reduces bias and misinformation.

Key Takeaways from Week 1

• Psychology is a scientific discipline, not just common sense.
• The goal is to describe, explain, predict, and influence behavior.
• Psychologists do not prescribe medication, unlike psychiatrists.
• Beware of pseudo-psychology (e.g., astrology, graphology).
• Critical thinking is crucial for evaluating psychological claims.

Literal Origins of Psychology

• Psychology originally meant "the study of the soul or mind."
• Roots trace back to Ancient Egypt & Greece.
• It became a scientific discipline in the 1500s, with major growth in the 1800s.
• Early Influences
  • Philosophy: Rationalism, where knowledge comes from reason and logic.
  • Physiology: Empirical research based on observation and experiments using the scientific method.

Early Schools of Thought

• Five major schools shaped modern psychology.
• Structuralism (1879)
  • Key Figure: Wilhelm Wundt, considered the Father of Psychology.
  • The first psychology lab was established in Leipzig, Germany.
  • Focus: Breaking down conscious experiences into basic elements.
  • Method: Introspection (examining one’s own thoughts & feelings).
  • Other Key Figures: Edward Titchener and Margaret Floy Washburn.
• Functionalism (1890s)
  • Key Figure: William James, considered the Father of American Psychology.
  • William James wrote "The Principles of Psychology" (1890).
  • Focus: How behavior and mental processes help us adapt to our environment.
  • Influence: Shifted focus to how the mind works to allow people to function in the real world, rather than breaking it down.
  • Influenced behaviorism, but no longer a major perspective.
• Psychoanalytic Psychology (1900s)
  • Key Figure: Sigmund Freud.
  • Freud wrote "The Interpretation of Dreams" (1900) and "A General Introduction to Psychoanalysis" (1922).
  • Focus: The unconscious mind influences thoughts and behaviors, early childhood experiences shape personality; repressed desires impact emotions.
  • Methods: Dream analysis and free association to uncover hidden motivations.
  • Other contributors include Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Erik Erikson, and Karen Horney.
• Behaviorism (1913)
  • Key Figures:
    • Ivan Pavlov: Classical conditioning (dog experiment).
    • John B. Watson: Applied conditioning to humans (Father of Behaviorism).
    • B.F. Skinner: Operant conditioning (rewards & punishments).
  • Focus: Study observable behaviors, not thoughts or emotions
  • Learning happens through reinforcement & punishment.
  • Methods: Controlled experiments (Skinner box).
  • Still used today in behavior therapy & education.
• Gestalt Psychology (1920s)
  • Key Figure: Max Wertheimer.
  • Focus: "The whole is greater than the sum of its parts."
  • Key Idea: The mind organizes information into meaningful patterns.
  • Example: Law of Closure, where the brain fills in gaps to form complete shapes.
  • Influence: Modern perception & cognitive psychology.

Modern Psychological Perspectives

• Today’s psychology combines multiple approaches for a better understanding.
• Psychodynamic Perspective
  • Focus: Unconscious conflicts, repressed emotions, and early childhood experiences.
  • Key Figures: Freud, Jung, Adler, and Erikson.
• Behavioral Perspective
  • Focus: Behavior is learned from the environment & reinforcement, without focusing on thoughts or emotions.
  • Applications: Behavior therapy, habit management, and phobia treatment.
  • Key Figures: Watson, Pavlov, and Skinner.
• Humanistic-Existential Perspective
  • Focus: Free will and personal growth, self-actualization (reaching full potential).
  • Key Figures: Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers.
  • Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: Motivation based on fulfilling needs.
  • Still used today in therapy & self-development.
• Cognitive Perspective
  • Focus: How people think, learn, remember, & solve problems.
  • Methods: Memory research and decision-making studies.
  • Key Figures: Jean Piaget and Edward Tolman.
  • Used in AI research & educational psychology.
• Evolutionary Perspective
  • Focus: Behavior is shaped by natural selection, traits that help survival are passed down.
  • Example: Babies cry to keep parents nearby → survival advantage.
  • Key Figures: David Buss and Steven Pinker.
• Biological Perspective
  • Focus: Behavior is influenced by genes, brain chemistry, & hormones.
  • Research areas: Sleep, drug effects, and neuroplasticity.
• Sociocultural Perspective
  • Focus: Culture & society shape thoughts & behaviors.
  • Example: Social norms for eye contact and emotional expression.
  • Key Figures: Wilhelm Wundt and David Matsumoto.

Combining Perspectives: The Eclectic Approach

• No single perspective explains all behavior.
• Modern psychologists combine perspectives for a more complete view.
• Other Approaches
  • Biopsychosocial Model: Behavior = biology + psychology + social environment, which interact and influence each other.
  • Ecological Systems Model: Individuals interact with families, communities, & cultures.

Key Takeaways from Week 2

• Psychology evolved from philosophy & physiology.
• Structuralism & Functionalism laid the foundation for psychology.
• Five major schools are Structuralism, Functionalism, Psychoanalysis, Behaviorism, Gestalt.
• Seven modern perspectives are Psychodynamic, Behavioral, Humanistic, Cognitive, Evolutionary, Biological, Sociocultural.
• The eclectic approach is used in today’s psychology.

Importance of Psychological Research

• Psychological research is essential to validate claims and advance scientific understanding.
• Research is empirical, based on objective, observable, and repeatable evidence.
• Without research, reliance is placed on intuition and assumptions.

Types of Research Methods

• Descriptive Research (Observing & Recording Behavior)
  • Naturalistic Observation: Observing behavior in a natural environment (school playground, chimpanzees).
    • Pros: Natural behavior, good for early research stages.
    • Cons: Observer effect, observer bias, no control over variables.
  • Case or Clinical Studies: In-depth study of one individual (e.g., Phineas Gage, Genie Wiley).
    • Pros: Provides deep insight into rare cases.
    • Cons: Cannot generalize results to the larger population.
  • Surveys & Interviews: Asking large groups of people questions about their thoughts & behaviors.
    • Pros: Efficient, fast, large sample size.
    • Cons: People may lie (social desirability bias), wording effects influence responses.
• Correlational Research (Finding Relationships Between Variables)
  • Correlation Studies: Measures the relationship between two variables.
    • Correlation Coefficient (r): Measures strength/directions of the relation between 2 variables.
      • Positive correlation (+1.00): Both variables increase together (e.g., hours studied & GPA).
      • Negative correlation (-1.00): One increases, the other decreases (e.g., alcohol consumption & GPA).
      • Zero correlation (0): No relationship.
    • Correlation ≠ Causation (e.g., ice cream sales & crime rates increase together due to temperature).
    • Advantages: Discovers relationships and makes general predictions.
    • Limitations: Cannot imply causation from correlations.
    • Illusory Correlations: Seeing relationships between two things when no real relationship exists.
• Experimental Research (Finding Cause & Effect)
  • Conducting Experiments: Control Group (No Treatment) vs. Experimental Group (Receives Treatment).
    • Independent Variable (IV): Manipulated variable (e.g., drug dosage).
    • Dependent Variable (DV): Measured variable (e.g., improvement in mood).
    • Control Measures: Placebo Effect, Single-Blind Study, Double-Blind Study.

Ethics in Research

• Research involving humans must be approved by the Institutional Review Board (IRB).
• Participants must be fully aware of risks and can withdraw at any time through informed consent.
• Data must be protected through confidentiality.
• Animal research is used when unethical on humans but must follow strict ethical guidelines.

Key Takeaways from psychological research

• Psychology is a science based on empirical research.
• Experiments help determine cause & effect, but correlation ≠ causation.

Introduction to Biopsychology

• Also known as psychobiology, physiological psychology, or behavioral neuroscience.
• Studies how biology (brain, nervous system, genetics, hormones) affects behavior, thoughts, and emotions.
• Key focus: Interaction of brain, hormones, neurotransmitters, and environment in shaping who we are.

Nature vs. Nurture Debate

• Explores whether genetics (nature) or environment (nurture) shape us more.
• Current View: Interactionist perspective, both nature and nurture influence human development.
• Alleles: Variations of genes (dominant vs. recessive).
• Genotype vs. Phenotype
  • Genotype: Genetic blueprint inherited from parents.
  • Phenotype: Observable traits (appearance, behavior, health).
• Example: Schizophrenia & Genetics
  • Genetic Risk: Higher in families with schizophrenia history.
  • Environmental Factors: Stress, trauma, and drug use can trigger the disorder.
• Stress-Vulnerability Model: Mental disorders arise from genetic predisposition + environmental stressors.

Epigenetics

• Epigenetics studies how lifestyle & environment can influence gene expression without changing the DNA sequence.
• Examples of epigenetic effects are Maternal stress affecting infant stress responses Smoking causing gene modifications, Diet and lifestyle influencing risk of diseases like obesity & depression
• Genes are not destiny, environmental factors can modify genetic expression.

The Nervous System & Neurons

• Neurons are basic units of the nervous system, responsible for transmitting information.
• Neuron Structure & Function
  • Dendrites: Receive signals from other neurons.
  • Soma (Cell Body): Contains DNA, processes signals.
  • Axon: Transmits electrical impulses.
  • Myelin Sheath: Fatty insulation that speeds up transmission.
  • Nodes of Ranvier: Gaps in myelin, allowing faster signal jumps.
  • Terminal Buttons: Release neurotransmitters to communicate with other neurons.
• Neurotransmitters
  • Dopamine: Movement, pleasure, motivation.
  • Serotonin: Mood regulation.
  • GABA: Inhibitory neurotransmitter.
  • Endorphins: Involved in pain, pleasure.

Synaptic Transmission

• Neurons communicate via synapses using neurotransmitters.
  • Electrical signal travels down.
  • Chemicals cross gap.
  • Chem bind on the receiving neuron causing response.
  • Transmitters are either reabsorbed or broken down.
• Agonists enhance neurotransmitter activity, while antagonists block neurotransmitter activity.

Key Takeaways

• Both nature (genetics) & nurture (environment) shape human development.
• Epigenetics shows that lifestyle & environment can modify gene expression.
• Neurons & neurotransmitters play a crucial role in behavior & mental health.
• The biopsychosocial model highlights how biological, psychological, and social factors interact.
• Synaptic transmission is essential for brain communication, and imbalances can lead to disorders.

Structure of the Human Brain

• The brain is divided into two hemispheres and consists of distinct lobes, each responsible for different functions.
• All brain areas work together to regulate thoughts, emotions, behaviors, and body functions.

Brain Hemispheres

• Lateralization occurs when some mental processes are more dominant in one hemisphere than the other, but both hemispheres work together.
  • Left Hemisphere: Language, logic, analytical thinking.
  • Right Hemisphere: Creativity, spatial ability, intuition, emotions.
• Corpus Callosum: Connects the two hemispheres and allows communication between them.

Cerebral Cortex and its Lobes

• The cerebral cortex is associated with our highest mental capabilities.
  • Frontal Lobe: Planning, problem-solving, judgment.
    • Motor Cortex: Controls movement and planning.
    • Broca’s Area: Speech production (damage = difficulty speaking).
  • Parietal Lobe: Processes sensory information (touch, temperature, pain), spatial awareness & body coordination.
  • Temporal Lobe: Auditory Cortex processes sound, Wernicke’s Area = Speech comprehension(damage = fluent but nonsensical speech).
  • Occipital Lobe: Processes visual information, interprets color, shape, and motion.

Limbic System: Emotion & Memory

• The limbic system regulates emotions, memory, and survival instincts.
  • Amygdala: Processes emotions (fear, anger, aggression) and emotional memory.
  • Hippocampus: Essential for learning and forming new memories (damage = memory loss).
  • Hypothalamus: Regulates hunger, thirst, body temperature, and hormone release.

The Hindbrain: Survival & Coordination

• Located at the back of the head, it controls basic survival functions and coordination.
  • Medulla: Regulates breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure.
  • Pons: Connects the brain and spinal cord, involved in sleep regulation.
  • Cerebellum: Controls balance, coordination, movement and motor learning, important in processing some type of memory (procedural).
• these are all known as the brain stem

Brain Imaging Techniques

• Techniques Using Radiation
  • CT Scan: Uses X-rays to detect brain tumors or injuries.
  • PET Scan: Tracks blood flow and brain activity using a radioactive tracer.
• Techniques Using Magnetic Fields
  • MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging): Creates detailed images of brain tissue.
  • fMRI (Functional MRI): Shows brain activity over time.
• Techniques Using Electrical Activity
  • EEG (Electroencephalogram): Measures brain wave activity (used for sleep and epilepsy studies).
  • MEG (Magnetoencephalography): Measures real-time brain activity, better than fMRI because you can move while scanning.

The Nervous System: Communication Pathways

• The nervous system controls thoughts, emotions, and body movements.
  • Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain & Spinal Cord.
  • Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Carries signals between the CNS and the rest of the body.
• Two Subsystems of the PNS
  • Somatic Nervous System: Controls voluntary movements (e.g., walking, writing speaking).
  • Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): Controls involuntary functions (heart rate, digestion).
• Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) has two branches
  • Sympathetic System: Activates fight-or-flight response to get ready to go.
  • Parasympathetic System: Calms the body to calm you down.

The Endocrine System: Hormone Control

• The endocrine system regulates growth, metabolism, stress response, and reproduction through hormones with different type of gland.
  • Pituitary Gland: The “Master Gland” that controls the secretion of other glands.
  • Thyroid Gland: Regulates metabolism
  • Adrenal Glands: Releases stress response hormones
  • Pancreas: Regulates blood sugar
  • Gonads (Testes & Ovaries): Control reproduction & sexual motivation
  • Pineal Gland: Produces Melatonin, regulating sleep-wake cycles
• Hypothalamus links both systems by controlling the Pituitary Gland.

Key Takeaways

• The brain is divided into lobes, each with specialized functions.
• The limbic system controls emotions & memory.
• The hindbrain manages survival functions (breathing, heart rate, balance).
• Brain imaging techniques help study structure & function.
• The nervous system controls body functions (voluntary & involuntary).
• The endocrine system uses hormones to regulate processes like stress, growth, and metabolism.

Defining Consciousness

• Consciousness is a continuous stream of thoughts, feelings, sensations, and perceptions.
• Consciousness includes Internal stimuli (hunger, pain, emotions, thoughts) and External stimuli (light, temperature, sounds, people).
• Altered States of Consciousness includes, sleep, meditation, hypnosis and drug-induced states.

Biological Rhythms & The Sleep-Wake Cycle

• Biological Rhythms are internal cycles of biological activity.
  • Example : Menstrual cycle, body temperature fluctuations, and Levels of alertness.
• Circadian Rhythms (24-hour cycles).
  • Control the sleep-wake cycle, body temperature, and hormone levels.
• Regulated by the hypothalamus
• Light exposure signals the SCN in the hypothalamus.
  • SCN signals the pineal gland to regulate melatonin production which induces sleep.
• Body temperature rises throughout the day and drops at night
  • People sleep best when their body temperature is lowest and increase temperature gives higher level alertness.

Chronotypes

• Chronotype is natural preference for morning or evening activity, influenced by genetics, circadian rhythm and environment.
  • Morning People (“Larks”)
    • Body temperature rises quickly in the morning, stays high until 7 PM.
    • Sleep earlier, wake up earlier.
  • Night People (“Owls”)
    • Body temperature rises gradually, peaks in the afternoon.
    • Sleep later, wake up later.

Disruptions of Sleep

• Disruptions to sleep can cause fatigue, mood changes, & cognitive difficulties. Examples are;
• Jet Lag
• Shift Work
• Sleep Debt

Why Sleep?

• Sleep helps restore energy & resources and reduces exposure to predators through adaptive functions.
• Helps store declarative memories and remember procedural memories
• Physical and emotional benefits of sleep.
  • Brain repairs tissue.
  • Growth hormones are released.
  • Strengthens immune system.
  • Regulates emotions & mood.
• Lack of sleep impairs memory & learning, problem-solving skills, immune function, and mood & stress regulation.

Measuring Sleep

• Tools to measure sleep include: ✅ EEG (Electroencephalogram): Looks at electrical brain activity ✅ EOG (Electrooculography): Records eye movements ✅ EMG (Electromyography): Monitors muscle activity ✅ Vital Signs: Measures heart rate, blood pressure, breathing

Stages of Sleep

• Sleep has Non-REM (NREM) Sleep (Stages 1-4) and REM (Rapid Eye Movement) Sleep (Stage 5).
  • Stage 1: Light sleep, slower alpha & theta waves.
  • Stage 2: Sleep spindles & K-complexes appear, protecting sleep & help with learning.
  • Stage 3-4: Slow-Wave Sleep (SWS), large delta waves, most restorative sleep.
  • REM Sleep (Stage 5):
    • Brain is highly active as vivid dreams are being created.
    • Plays a role in emotional processing
    • Paralysis prevents acting out dreams

Sleep Disorders

• Unusual Sleep Behaviors are known as Parasomnias.
  • Sleepwalking (Somnambulism) usually occurs in deep sleep (Stage 3-4 and mostly children.
  • Sleep Paralysis occurs when you're awake but unable to move, feeling pressure or a sense of choking
  • REM Sleep Behavior Disorder (RBD) occurs when the Paralysis fails
  • Night Terrors are sudden panic, screaming, happening in deep sleep, not REM mainly childrens.
• Treatment for parasomnias may include improving sleep habits, manage stress & anxiety and taking necessary medications. Major Sleep Disorders
• Insomnia Is the most common sleep disorder that can occur temp or chronic.
• Narcolepsy brings sudden REM sleep attacks during the day, and might experience sudden muscle weakness.
• Sleep Apnea means, Breathing stops during sleep causing fatigue & cardiovascular problems. REM Dreams: vivid, memorable, story, surreal, visual, emotional and NREM Dreams: less vivid, memorable than REM

Why Dream?

• Theories on Dreaming:
  • Psychoanalytic (Freud): Dreams reflect hidden desires & repressed thoughts.
  • Carl Jung’s View: Dreams connect to universal symbols (archetypes) guiding to growth and self-understanding
  • Cognitive Theory: Dreams help process emotions & memories.
  • Activation-Synthesis Theory: Dreams are random brain activity.

Key Takeaways

• Consciousness includes waking states & altered states (sleep, meditation, hypnosis).
• Circadian rhythms regulate sleep-wake cycles.
• Sleep is essential for cognitive, emotional, and physical health.
• Sleep has 5 stages, with REM sleep responsible for dreams.
• Sleep disorders can impact mental & physical well-being.
• Dreams may serve multiple functions, from memory processing to emotional regulation.

Meditation

• Meditation is an altered state of consciousness that involves focusing on the present moment to achieve a calm awareness but the mine stays focus.
• Puts the mind in a state between wakefulness & sleep, associated with theta brain waves. Health and mental health Benefits of Meditation is
  • Reducing stress hormones
  • Improving sleep
  • Enhancing emotional regulation
  • Improving cognitive function & mental clarity
• Steven Laureys and Buddhist monk Matthieu Ricard showed increased control over brain activity during meditation through studies.

Hypnosis: Myths

• Hypnosis is not sleep but a trance-like state of deep relaxation where suggestibility is heightened.
• Key Features of Hypnosis includes a heightened focus, detached attention and Inner experiences
• Hypnosis as a Therapeutic Tool is recognized by the APA (American Psychological Association) but remains controversial.