Introduction to Political Science

Introduction to Political Science

• The remote origins of Political Science are in Ancient Greece
• In the 5th century BC, Greek civilization conceived of humans as free, essentially equal citizens with the right and moral obligation to participate in public affairs
• They discovered that states and governments are debatable, changeable, and perfectible human creations
• The Greeks called their city-states "polis," their citizens "polites," and public activity "politiké"
• They understood politics as the participation of citizens in the organization of society and in determining who should govern
• Politics consisted of determining and, if possible, the achievement of collective goals
• The importance of politics at that time remained in the notion of man as a political animal (zoon Politikon) according to Aristotle
• Humans can only reach their development living in society

Object of Political Science

• The word "politics" comes from the Greek "polis," meaning city, and refers to the art of governing nations
• Politics is the set of relationships derived from human interaction as a consequence of living in society
• The object of Political Science is the State (institutionalism) and power
• Both positions influence political power
• Political power is that which is exercised over a society by people authorized for that purpose and who have a coercive apparatus (the State) to impose itself in case of disobedience
• Understanding politics as the science and the art of governing, administration of the State is the struggle for power in function of interests
• Objectives of Political Science include understanding political ideas, ideologies, and institutions such as governmental institutions, NGOs, international organizations, authority and its legitimacy, political parties, and the State
• Simple contact with social reality reveals an activity that is commonly called politics

Precursors of Political Science

• Among the figures of Political Science is Aristotle, considered one of the founders of political science, particularly in his contributions to the theory of government
• Aristotle argued that politics is a means to achieve happiness and virtue in the community
• Aristotle created the first element of political science: using the method of observation
• Machiavelli, a Florentine official, introduced a substantial rupture between philosophy vs morals and practice in 1532 through his manuscript "The Prince."
• Machiavelli saw the State as a particular sphere of human action, independently of religion, philosophy, and morals
• Machiavelli autonomized a political-state object and consolidated the possibility of an autonomous discipline to study it, political science
• Other thinkers include Auguste Comte (France, 1789-1857) and Carlos Marx (Germany, 1818, Great Britain 1883)

Definitions of Political Science

• Political Science is a science with the pretense of verifiability that investigates the truly existent forms of government, seeking to describe and explain the factual reality of the government and of the actions and struggles around it
• It is a specialized social discipline within a general social science that deals with all types of social phenomena (relations, structures, institutions) to the extent that they affect or influence political power
• Political Science is the science of politics, that is, the science of the public activity of citizens, the science of the republic
• Political Science is the science of power or the science of the State

Method of Political Science

• A method can be understood as three distinct things linked together
  • The scientific method is a procedure, an ordered sequence of steps or movements.
  • A set of rules applied to the procedure
  • The sum of techniques such as observation, classification, or experimentation
• Political Science uses the entire range of social science methodology, from the historical method and the sociological survey to the statistical method
• Direct observation of the phenomena under study allows for the determination of their fundamental characteristics and becomes the first instrument to enter into contact with political reality

The Method of Political Science (Expanded)

• Refers to any problem of political, historical, sociological characteristics and how it should be addressed.
• It defines the procedures to follow and the path to get to the knowledge that is being sought.
• It is a set of techniques such as observation, classification, or experimentation that are applied to each step of the procedure
• The method is a kind of compass in which knowledge is not automatically produced

The Hypothesis

• The methodological instrument is the formulation of theories that seek to explain the relationships between various observed phenomena
• These are suppositions posed by the observer regarding the possible relationship between two or more observed facts
• Characteristics of hypotheses:
  • They are tentative predictions based on previous knowledge
  • They must be specific and verifiable and should not affirm or deny the researched matter

Concept of a System

• A methodological instrument to capture how events flow reciprocally such that when one of them suffers a variation, the others undergo a correlating transformation
• A system is normally understood as a set of units that, due to their reciprocal connection, can be identified in a global way as a larger unit
• A system functions as a whole in an organized way.
• Two types of systems are defined as conceptual or abstract (ideas, concepts, signs, theories) and real or material (structures composed of tangible elements, whether of natural or artificial origin)

Models

• The concept of a "model" is from the Latin "modulus" which signifies measurement.
• A model seeks to reproduce the basic characteristics of a system for easy comprehension.
• There are:
  • Analog models employing a known object to represent determined social realities, like using a pyramid to represent the social conformation of a country by age.
  • Formal models schematically representing a series of relationships between various phenomena, which can be mathematical and graphic, helping to predict behaviours, identify patterns, and eliminate ambiguity.
  • Mathematical models employing the characteristics of a formula in how various elements relate.

Methods (Expanded)

• The understanding nature and functioning phenomena involves diverse academic pursuits using various methods.
• The study of time, for example, is approached through models.
• The Deductive Method obtains general conclusions.
• Examples of the deductive method include, "All humans are mortal", "Socrates is human, concluding that Socrates is mortal"
• The Inductive Method is based on the observation of facts and phenomena
  • Proceeds from the particular to the general
  • Generalizes from a sample of observations
  • Conclusions are probabalistic
  • Purpose is to generalize knowledge
  • *Example: "The sun rises every day, so it will always rise"

The Comparative and Historical Methods

• The comparative or analogous (comparison or contrast) method is employed to find resemblances and differences between events
• The process consists of comparing two or more phenomena side by side to establish similarities or differences, leading to valid conclusions that define the problem or establish future paths to improve understanding of something
• The historical method consists of studying the backgrounds of the issues
• The purpose of this method is to explain the characteristics of issues and derive meaning from the historical data

The Dialectic Method of Hegel

• The concept takes a dynamic position to understand change as constant
• Each phenomenon, in some way, negates itself, and this contradiction leads to a new reality that in turn produces another on page 32
• The structure consists of three phases, each of which builds upon the other
  • Thesis: the position or affirmation of something
  • Antithesis: the negation or demonstration of the problems and contradictions of the thesis
  • Synthesis: the new contradiction of the problem, which arises from the contraposition of the thesis and the antithesis

Validation Methods

• The verification process evaluates method performance to ensure requirements are met
• Meeting requirements ensures the presentation of objective tests, the verification that the minimum specified requirements have been met

Power

• Power is one of the central concepts in political science, albeit difficult to characterize
• Power signifies the probability of imposing one's will, within a social relationship, against all resistance, whatever the foundation,
• According to Hobbes, power consists of the means present to obtain some future good
• G. Vedel defines power as the "phenomenon of command in a society."
• Marxist Objective Conception of Power definitions include:
  • Nicos Poulantzas: "The capacity of a social class to realize its specific interests"
  • Marx: "Political power, properly said, is the organized violence of one class for the oppression of another."
  • Marta Harnecker: "Power is the capacity to use the State apparatus to fulfill the objectives of the dominant class."
• Power has its maximum expression in the State, and political power is that which is exercised from the State. In general, the foundation of power must be looked for in the economic situation of the social groups
• Instrument of power par excellence is the State--the apparatus of domination of one class over the others
• There are different classes of power: the economic (media of production), ideological, (control of the ideological structure), and the Political

Forms of Power

• Power is the capacity of a person or group to determine, condition, direct, or induce the conduct of others.
• Might is characterized by the ability to act on the conducts of others and is based on the use of force
• Command power is exerted on the actions of others based on pre-existing standards to be applied
• Influence may encompass the risk of a sanction although is not formally outlined
• Authority or the affect of leadership has the potential to influence

Theories on Political Power: Elitism

• In every society, there exists a minority that governs and a majority that is governed
• Two social classes exists: one governing and the other governed
• The first, always the less numerous, fulfills all the political functions, monopolizes power, and enjoys its advantages.
• The theory is that power is philosophically, sociologically, politically, and economically held by few individuals
• The elite have the capacity to impose their value system on the collective, employing means of persuasion that keep the masses convinced that the existing order is the best possible
• Elite is a minority group within a society with a superior status

Pluralist Theory

• In contrast to the elitist conception of power, the pluralist structure posits that there is no single point of control over the masses
• The result in this scenario is that no overall center of power exists
• The pluralism incorporates democratic principles that are present in the ideological consideration of the division of different views within groups

Governance

• Governance is achieved through influence among social groups, rather than through subordination
• Good governance requires various characteristics or principles: participation, effectiveness, efficiency, equity, inclusion, and the rule of law
• Governance also implies the loss of governmental control, placing an administrator to determine an approach
• Between governing and governability is the "coordination" of forces and decisions

Class Theory

• Derived from the thinking of Marx, class relationships related to forces are used to determine production
• Positions depend on the marxist determined function in processing
• Classes differ by the social class
• The dominant group maintains conditions in order to increase the structure of their class

Dynamics of Power

• Focuses on organizational power
  • Measured by the ability of how it is exerted
  • Persuading arguments lead to valid and invalid points
• Two types of power can be defined as objective with capacity or subjective that uses leadership

Power and Law

• Power exists in conjunction with the law
  • In conjunction they are an intertwined set of standards
  • The law uses judicial means to enforce the standards
  • Those in power affect the morality of the law
• All powers are ensured by the expression of legal rights and requirements
• When mandates exist with a claim an unstable relationship forms
• It must have clear justification

Cooperation and Conflict

• Conflict requires cooperation, in a reciprocal interation between two or more parties.
• Such actions can only be achieved with human to human cooperative efforts

Legitimacy

• Authority must exist to be upheld, and is best in the form of legalization
• All systems must be upheld to observe norms
• Weber distinguishes three types of legitimacy according to their origin: legal or rational (legal order established objectively according to the rules of reason), traditional), beliefs, tradition, or charismatic (the recognition of the person who exercises power)
• Legitimacy implies the acceptance of the power of the rulers
• Governed obey because they believe they must obey, because the relationship of authority is just according to values
• Opinion in the public, when formalized, is a reflection of the governments legitimacy

Ideology

• Ideology encompasses related ideas that create standards
• These theories support a path in order to direct action in one of two means: Liberal ideology and Marxist Ideology
• Liberal ideals dictate that all men are created equal
• Marxist ideals dictate two parts: Dominate and Subordinate
• In order to classify which ideals should lead the most the location should be discovered