Introduction to Philosophy

• Many students lack exposure to philosophy in school and hold misconceptions about it.
• Common false assumptions include that philosophy is wishy-washy, vague, and opaque.
• Academic philosophy is often rigorous, concise, and clear.
• Philosophy is an activity focused on teaching how to think, rather than what to think.
• Philosophy explores general and fundamental questions, but also has applied and practical applications.

Sub-Disciplines of Philosophy

• Academic philosophy is divided into sub-disciplines, though questions can overlap.
• Central disciplines include: Epistemology, Ethics, Metaphysics (including ontology), and Political Philosophy.

Epistemology

• Focuses on the nature and limits of knowledge.
• Examples: When is a belief justified? Can we truly know anything?

Ethics

• Deals with questions of morality, right and wrong action.
• Examples: Do the ends justify the means? How should we consider the interests of future people?

Metaphysics

• Explores questions about the nature of reality and existence.
• Examples: What does reality consist of? Do we have free will? Are our minds separate from our bodies?

Political Philosophy

• Examines questions about the legitimacy of the state and institutions.
• Examples: What is a just society? When is state force legitimate? What justifies claims to private property?
• Philosophy reflects on and questions the reasons behind our beliefs.
• It helps us reason better about difficult questions, whether esoteric, commonplace, theoretical, or applied.
• The philosophical conversation uses various methods, techniques, and strategies to aid reasoning and promote new ways of thinking.

Methods and Techniques in Philosophy

Commitment to Questioning

• Philosophy opposes dogma and the idea that anything is incontrovertibly true.
• All beliefs are open to critical inquiry.
• There is an obligation to consider counterarguments.
• Constant questioning is encouraged.

Commitment to Argument and Logical Reasoning

• Claims are backed up by reasons.
• Strong philosophical arguments are supported by convincing reasons.
• Meticulous analysis of arguments involves identifying contradictions, fallacies, insufficient evidence, and conclusions that do not follow from the premises.

Conceptual Analysis of Terms or Abstract Ideas

• Concepts order our experience and differ from mere words.
• Conceptual analysis goes beyond dictionary definitions, focusing on the intelligible use of a concept.
• Abstract concepts generate philosophical questions.
• Conceptual interrogation applies to philosophical problems and contemporary debates e.g. murder, racism, justice, equality.

Relationships Between Concepts

• Contradiction: Concepts logically exclude each other e.g. square circle, justified murder.
• Logical Implication: One concept implies another e.g. "Red" implies "colour", ability to feel pain implies consciousness.
• Belonging to Different Conceptual Categories/Category errors: Ideas judged with practical considerations e.g. abstract vs concrete

Conceptual Analysis and Evaluative Analysis

• Evaluative ideas guide our actions and values.
• Philosophy helps us reflect on underlying evaluative ideas and their worth.
• Some concepts have innate implications for morality, value, significance, and meaning.

Positing Underlying Theories to Explain Diverse Phenomena

• The explanatory power of a theory is crucial.
• Counter-examples challenge explanatory theories by showing phenomena they fail to explain.
• Philosophical debate involves proposing theories, counterexamples, and responses.
• This includes denying the counterexample or modifying the theory.

Common Philosophical Terms

• "Ad hoc": Negative term for unjustified amendments made to avoid being disproven.
• "Unfalsifiable": Negative term for positions that cannot be proven false, making them trivially true.
• Reflective equilibrium: Seeks coherence between our general principles and particular judgments.
• Thought experiments: Explore concepts, ideas, or theories in ways not apparent in everyday use.
• These methods are utilized in addressing specific philosophical questions.