Introduction to Philosophy and Logic

Philosophy and Logic

• Philosophy is the love of wisdom derived from the Greek words "philos" (love) and "sophia" (wisdom).
• Pythagoras originated this nominal definition and considered man a lover of wisdom.
• Philosophy is the love and pursuit of wisdom and friendship with wisdom, enlightening the understanding mind.

Fields of Philosophy

• Philosophy is classified as practical and speculative.
• Practical philosophy includes: -Logic: Science and art of correct thinking. -Ethics: Study of standards of right and wrong. -Axiology: Study of nature, types, criteria, and status of human values.
• Logic, Ethics, and Axiology are considered practical philosophies to guide actions, develop reasoning, and study speculative philosophy.
• Speculative philosophy includes: -Epistemology: the science dealing with human knowledge and the quest to know the truth. -Metaphysics: addresses the fundamentals of existence or reality, such as the nature of God, soul, evil, freedom, and the mind-body relationship. -Aesthetics: A philosophical inquiry of the beautiful. -Cosmology: A philosophical inquiry of the physical world. -Rational Psychology: Study of the principles of living things, especially humans. -Social Philosophy: Study of socioeconomic-political dimensions of human beings. -Philosophy of Man: Study of the nature of man as a person, origin and destiny. -Theodicy: Study of a Supreme Being and Their relation to creatures. -Political Philosophy: Inquiry into the foundation of the state, government, and power.
• Philosophical speculation involves creative thinking drawing from empirical facts towards abstract concepts.

Logic: A Philosophical Tool

• Logic comes from the Greek word "logos," meaning study, reason, discourse, argument, or act of reasoning.
• Logic is understood as the science and art of correct thinking.
• As a science, logic is a body of systematized knowledge, and it demonstrates the laws of correct thinking.
• As an art, logic guides man's reasoning with order and ease in making definitions, propositions, and inferences.
• Correct thinking implies: -Right order -Reasonable procedure -Valid inference -Consistency -Necessary relationship
• Thinking implies: -Conformity to valid rules -Connectivity of truth about available experiences
• Correct thinking connects ideas, judgments, and reasoning.
• Logic is a philosophical tool for forming ideas, comparing them, and inferring valid conclusions.

The Importance of Logic

• Practicing logic as a habit of good reasoning improves reasoning ability.
• Logic makes science possible, and Aristotle regards it as an "organon" for discovering truth.
• Logic helps in recognizing faulty reasoning.
• Logic prepares for leadership, promotes understanding, hastens success, and leads to just laws.
• Logic protects society from chaos, promises an orderly life, and leads to happiness.

Types of Logic

• Logic can be classified based on validity of reasoning and approach to knowledge.
• Based on the validity of reasoning: -Formal: Validity based on conformity with the structure of a correct argument. -Material: Validity based on the thought content or meaning and truth of the statement.
• Deductive Logic: Reasoning from general truth to the specific, reaching valid conclusions based on known facts.
• Inductive Logic: Reasoning from specific cases or observations to universal truth, with conclusions that may or may not be valid.

Mental Operations

• The study of inference begins with understanding the three mental operations: simple apprehension, judgment, and reasoning.
• Simple Apprehension: Understanding the essence of a thing and produces a concept.
• Judgment: Affirming or denying the relation of concepts to express reality and produces a proposition.
• Reasoning: Presenting a truth as supported by facts and produces an inference or argument.
• Logic is concerned with concept, proposition, and inference, while Psychology studies the mental acts.

The Syllogism

• Syllogism is a method of presenting an inference or argument.
• Syllogism is a group of propositions where one follows from the others as evidence or support.
• Syllogism consists of premises and a conclusion.

Critical Thinking

• Critical thinking is exercising objective, fair, and skilled judgment and analysis of ideas and arguments.
• Critical thinking means thinking clearly, logically, and intelligently to interpret, analyze, and evaluate arguments and truth claims.

Critical Thinkers vs. Uncritical Thinkers

• Critical thinkers are honest, acknowledge limitations, and are watchful of errors, while uncritical thinkers pretend to know more, ignore limitations, and assume they are error-free.
• Critical thinkers base judgments on evidence, deferring judgment when evidence is insufficient, while uncritical thinkers base judgments on first impressions and gut reactions.
• Critical thinkers are interested in other's ideas and are willing to listen, while uncritical thinkers are preoccupied with self and are unwilling to pay attention to others' views..
• Critical thinkers practice restraint and think before acting, while uncritical thinkers tend to follow their feelings and act impulsively.
• Critical thinkers think independently and disagree with group opinion, while uncritical thinkers engage in "group think," unthinkingly following the beliefs/values of the crowd.