Introduction to Philosophy

• Philosophy derives from the Greek words "philos" (friendship) and "Sophia" (wisdom).
• Philosophia means "love of wisdom," aiming for the highest mental object.

Definition of Philosophy

• Thinking/Philosophy is a "sacred disease" (Heraclitus).
• Philosophy teaches us "how to live" (Michel de Montaigne).
• Philosophy thinks out the reasons for opinions (Josiah Royce).
• Comprehending "what is" is philosophy's task (GWF Hegel).
• Philosophy is the "tyrannical drive itself," the most spiritual will to power (Friedrich Nietzsche).
• Philosophy is a stubborn attempt to think clearly (William James).
• Philosophy is an extraordinary enquiry into the extraordinary (Martin Heidegger).
• Philosophy reflects on our relation to truth, not just what's true or false (Michel Foucault).
• Philosophy is the science of ultimate causes and principles via human reason alone (Thomas Aquinas).

Philosophy as a Science of Spirit

• Geisteswissenschaften (humanity) contrasts with Naturwissenschaften (natural sciences).
• Philosophy involves systematic inquiry, using the mind as its laboratory.
• Philosophy is both systematic and creative.

Ultimate Causes and Principles

• Philosophy seeks the "target" (What is real? What is knowledge? What is the meaning of life?).
• Philosophy exceeds surface-level explanations.
• Causes and Principles involve abstract concepts.
• The "ultimate" target makes questioning endless.

Human Reason

• Human reason is required for philosophy.
• Reason is an exclusively human activity.

How to Study Philosophy

• Approaches include historical and thematic methods.
• The historical way examines philosophies by place (East/West) and time.
• Eastern philosophy is based on timelines.
• Western philosophy includes ancient (cosmocentric), medieval (theocentric), modern (anthropocentric), and postmodern (dialogical) phases.

Thematic Way

• Focuses on "Quid est?," asking "What is?".
• Metaphysics covers the philosophy of Being (nature of reality).
• Ontology explores Being as Being.
• Cosmology explores Being as Cosmos.
• Theodicy explores Being as Ultimate Being.
• Rational Psychology examines Being as Man using rational analysis.

Thematic Philosophy of Man

• Thinking/Theoretical explores knowledge (epistemology) and reasoning (logic).
• Living/Practical examines values (axiology), beauty (aesthetics), and actions/ethics, encompassing ethics for oneself, family, and society.
• Philosophy moves from wonder to a serious choice, studied in history, culture, and focus.
• To philosophize is to humanize.

Ethics Introductory Notes

• Ethics (ethike) relates to habits/customs.
• Moralia (mos/mores) also relates to custom/habit.
• Ethics studies voluntary human action to determine good/right activities for a good life.
• Martin Rhonheimer highlights the original intuition of the good as a goal from practical reason.

Ethics - The Field

• Ethics involves systematizing, defending, and recommending right/wrong concepts.

Ethics - Kinds

• Metaethics investigates ethical principles.
• Normative Ethics establishes right/wrong standards, including habits, duties, and consequences.
• Applied Ethics examines controversial issues like abortion and animal rights.

Metaphysics in Ethics

• Studies the origin/meaning of ethical concepts.
• Objectivism asserts morality is objective, absolute, universal, and exists beyond human convention.
• Voluntarism suggests God controls everything.
• Relativism denies absolute morality; values shift with time/society.
• Individual Relativism holds each person has their standards (Nietzsche).

Normative Ethics Details

• Normative Ethics uses standards that regulate conduct.
• The Golden Rule guides actions.
• Virtue Theories emphasize good habits (Aristotle).
• Duty Theories (Deontological Ethics) focus on obligation (Kant).
• Consequentialist Theories (Teleological) are purpose-driven.
• Ethical Egoism favors actions benefiting only the actor; is entirely self-focused.
• Ethical Altruism favors actions benefiting everyone except the actor.

Utilitarianism

• Actions are morally right if the consequences are favorable to everyone and maximize overall happiness.

Systems Covering Psychological Issues

• Psychological Egoism : All acts stem from selfishness.
• Psychological Altruism : Inherent capacity for benevolence.
• Psychological Hedonism : Pleasure drives actions (John Stuart Mill).
• Androcentric/Patriarchal : Traditional morality is male-centered.
• Feminist : Valuation can be found from the female perspective.
• Applied Ethics analyzes specific ethical issues with divided opinions on universal, obligatory practices.

Universal Moral Value Criteria

• Must involve universal obligations.
• Must apply to all, regardless of beliefs.

Human Person - Filipino Perspective

• Kamalayan focuses on consciousness related to experience.
• Katawan includes views of the body as owned and metaphoric.
• Kalayaan views freedom as expression and empowerment.

Pananagutan Integrates

• Response, strength, moral consideration, love, and justice.
• Lipunan connects society and self.
• Lipunan provides rights; it is a project of mutual growth.
• Kamatayan frames mortality as natural and leading to God (San Agustin).

Human Acts

• Human actions have voluntariness and are actions done with knowledge and will.

Moral Determinants of a Human Act:

• Object of the Act : is the act itself. Is it good, bad, or neutral? (Finis Operis)
• Intention : is the motive for doing the act. What is the agent trying to accomplish? (Finis Operantes)
• Circumstances : The who, what, where, when, why, how, and by what means. Asks about the situation and the possible consequences.

Consequences

• Constitutive : refers to the nature of the action
• Contingent : refers to the circumstances, they may or may not happen.

Pagpapakatao (Summary)

• Hornedo defines it as achieving full humanity through social actions.
• Pakikipagkapwa (relating with others) is crucial.
• The concept involves true humanity that respects dignity.

Situation Ethics

• There is only one guideline: The most loving action to all involved.

Critiques of Situation Ethics

• It is the middle ground rejecting both Legalism and Antinomianism.

Four Working Principles of Situationism

• Pragmatism: what works for the most love possible?
• Relativism: How does reality change our assumptions?
• Positivism: base reason and ethics on how things actually are and not how it ought to be.
• Personalism: focus on how individuality affects the action.

Six Propositions of Situation Ethics

• Love is the only good. Decisions ought to be born out of love. Justice is love.
• Only the ends justify the means. Love's decisions are situational, made in the moment.

Relativism

• Morality uses reason to guide conduct while weighing everyone's interests equally.

Relativism - Agents of Morality

• Agents of morality are fair, rational, and committed to acting ethically, using reason and evidence.
• There is no global moral law for all people, places, and times. Instead, the concept favors the consideration of individual ethics and situational practices.

Conventional Relativism (Conservatist) - Cultural Relativism

• Differing societies have differing moral codes which determine what the right thing is.
• Moral codes have no objective standard and arrogance comes from judging others.

Pragmatism

• Developed by Charles Sanders Peirce, William James, and John Dewey.

Human Temperaments

• Tough-Minded : commit to reality and facts.
• Tender-Minded : are principled and traditional.

Pragmatism Challenge

• Reconcile scientific loyalty with human values and spontaneity. It overcomes distinctions between tough and tender-minded individuals.

Pragmatic Truth

• Validate, corroborate, and verify ideas.
• Made by events.
• Theory is an instrument that we can use to handle reality. "The true is whatever good and what is right".

Pragmatic View of Freedom

• James opposes neutrality between determinism and indeterminism.
• Determinism makes evil actions unavoidable, yet we experience regret.
• Indeterminism allows real possibilities and changes in the world. Surprise and chance become parts of our experiences.
• In the absence of evidence, decide which belief.