Introduction to Personality

• Personality is a construct, representing a set of behavioral characteristics displayed over time and across situations, distinguishing individuals.
• Traits are consistent, long-lasting tendencies in behavior, while states are temporary activations of behavior in specific situations.
• These are descriptors and not explanations of behavior.
• Situational factors strongly influence personality.

Internal Traits vs Environment

• Internal traits are supported by the relation of personality to biology and genetics.
• External situations and environmental experiences, learning history, cultural heritage, and age influence "personality".
• Caucasian Americans are more individualistic than some other cultures
• Young adults are often more neurotic and open to new experiences.
• The fundamental attribution error involves underestimating situational influences on others' behavior.

Measuring Personality

• All personality measures infer personality from behaviors.
• Structured interviews focus on specific behaviors and rely on the honesty of the interviewee.
• Observation involves rating behaviors, but the observer's presence may interfere.
• Standardized tests are comprehensive, administered, and scored according to precise rules, making them the most common form of personality assessment, but social desirability may be a problem.

Types of Standardized Personality Tests

• The MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory) contains 567 yes/no items distinguishing groups with and without psychopathology and can detect lying; designed for hospital use.
• The PAI (Personality Assessment Inventory) uses 344 Likert-scale items and is relevant for normal personality patterns and psychopathology.
• The NEO-PI contains 240 Likert-scale items, measuring normal personality patterns according to the Big Five model, but it does not measure psychopathology and is used in career settings.
• The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator classifies people into 1 of 16 categories based on Carl Jung's psychodynamic theory, but it has low reliability and validity.
• Projective tests, based on Freudian psychodynamic theory, assume people "project" their personality onto ambiguous stimuli, but they have poor validity and reliability and tend to over-pathologize (e.g., Rorschach, TAT, House-Tree-Person).

Sigmund Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory

• Psychic determinism states that all psychological events have an underlying cause and meaning.
• Unconscious motivations influence behavior.
• A goal of therapy is to bring these unconscious motivations into conscious awareness.
• Childhood and upbringing are important.

The Structure of Personality

• The id is present at birth, operating on the pleasure principle for immediate gratification.
• The ego forms before the superego.
• The ego is rational and mediates between the id and superego, operating on the reality principle.
• The superego forms in early childhood, representing the conscience and sense of right and wrong.

Freud’s Personality Theory

• Five psychosexual stages involve satisfaction of instinctual drives and pleasure zones.
• Resolution of developmental tasks is key to progression through these stages.
• Fixation occurs with incomplete resolution, evident in times of stress, leading to psychopathology.

Freud’s Five Stages

• Oral stage (birth - age 1 ½): Pleasure derived from the mouth; developmental task is weaning from breast/bottle; fixation leads to dependent or aggressive personality.
• Anal Stage (ages 1 ½ - 3): Pleasure derived from bowel and bladder elimination; developmental task is successful toilet training; fixation leads to stubborn/methodical (anal-retentive) or cruel/antisocial personality.
• Phallic Stage (ages 3-6): Pleasure derived from genitals; developmental task is bonding with same-sex parent; fixation leads to conflicts with parents and identity problems.
• Latency Period (ages 6 - puberty): Sexual desires repressed; developmental task is transforming urges into culturally accepted activities.
• Genital Stage (puberty - ???): Pleasure derived from genitals, with sexual interest in others; developmental task is mature adult sexuality (love, work, responsibility).

Positive aspects of Freud’s theories

• The role of attachment to parents is important.
• Defence mechanisms are a key idea.
• Some mental processes occur without awareness.
• Freud's theories spurred research.

Criticism of Freud’s theories

• The untestable theory is not falsifiable.
• There is no experimental data.
• His theories are based on unrepresentative case studies and focussed too much on sexual drives.

Other Personality Theories

• Behavioral and social learning theories share a pessimistic view of human nature, determinism, and reductionism with Freud.
• Behavioral theories state that "personality" is learned, environment is the most important determinant, and there is no unconscious.
• Social learning theories incorporate the importance of thinking, interpretations of situations, observational learning, and gender roles.

The Big Five (O-C-E-A-N)

• Openness to experience includes being curious, unconventional, and willing to try new things.
• Conscientiousness includes being disciplined and responsible.
• Extraversion includes being social and outgoing.
• Agreeableness includes being empathic and compassionate.
• Neuroticism includes experiencing negative emotions.
• Assessed with NEO-PI