Introduction to Modern Linguistics

The study of how words are arranged in sentences.

In grammar, it refers to the rules that govern how phrases, clauses, and sentences are formed.

Categories of words based on their grammatical function and meaning, like nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.

A grammatical distinction that classifies nouns based on their form and typically reflects the sex of the referent.

The quality of a noun that indicates whether it refers to one or more entities or objects.

How a noun relates to the sex of the referent.

The descriptive approach focuses on describing language as it is used by speakers, without imposing prescriptive rules.

A set of traditional grammatical concepts used to analyze the relationships between words in sentences.

The ability of a language to create an infinite number of new expressions and utterances by combining existing elements. Humans can create new words and sentences to describe new situations, while animals have a fixed repertoire of signals.

The property of language allowing meaningful units (words) to be built from meaningless units (sounds). This allows for a greater flexibility and variety in communication than animal signals, which are typically holistic and indivisible.

The ability to use language to talk about language itself. This allows humans to analyze, reflect, and discuss communication, which is not found in animal communication.

Human language relies on discrete units of sound, like phonemes, which can be combined into different meaningful units (words) based on their order and arrangement. Animals typically do not use discrete units but rather rely on holistic signals.

The idea that language is acquired through social interaction and learning, not innate. Humans are born with the capacity to acquire language but not with the ability to speak a specific language.

The ability of a communication system to convey a variety of meanings using a limited number of signals. This is possible because the meaning of a signal is not always directly linked to its form or structure, allowing for a more flexible and versatile communication system.

The upper lip, upper teeth, roof of the mouth, and pharynx (back wall of the throat).

The tongue (including its parts: tip, front, back, and root) and the lips.

Sounds made with an egressive airflow (air pushed out) and obstruction or friction created by the articulators in the mouth or nose.

The position of the articulators (lips, tongue, teeth) that create the sound. Examples include bilabial, labiodental, alveolar, etc.

The way the articulators (lips, tongue, teeth) create a sound. Examples include stops, fricatives, nasals, etc.

Sounds made with the vocal cords vibrating.

Sounds made without the vocal cords vibrating.

The most sonorant sounds in speech, forming the nucleus of a syllable.

The theory that language developed from sounds people made while working together, like grunts and shouts used to coordinate effort.

The theory that language originated from singing and musical expression, rather than purely communicative needs.

The theory that language developed from humans using their hands to make tools and manipulate objects, leading to a system of oral-gesture signs and eventually spoken language.

The theory that language and object manipulation are closely related and that the development of the necessary physical structures for speech is a significant factor in the emergence of language.

The idea that humans possess a specific gene or genetic predisposition that makes language acquisition possible.

Early humans who lived between 1,800,000 and 500,000 years ago, known for their tool-making abilities, fire control, and larger brain size.

Early humans who existed between 200,000 and 250,000 years ago, known for their increasing brain size, ability to produce consonant-like sounds, and physical features resembling modern humans.

Any system of written symbols used to represent language and preserve messages over time.

A grammatical feature that distinguishes between the speaker, the listener, and other individuals or entities. It is typically expressed using pronouns.

The system of categorizing nouns according to their characteristics, like gender, animacy, or other features.

A grammatical agreement between parts of a sentence, ensuring they match in terms of number, gender, and other features.

A grammatical feature that shows when an action happened or is happening, including past, present, and future.

The distinction between active and passive forms of a verb, showing whether the subject performs an action or is acted upon.

A grammatical feature that identifies the gender of a noun. Some languages categorize nouns by gender (masculine, feminine, neuter), while others don't.

A grammatical feature indicating whether a noun is living or non-living. Some languages categorize nouns into animate and inanimate classes.

A grammatical feature that indicates the number of entities being referred to. Singular refers to one, plural refers to more than one. Some languages have a dual form, referring to two.

Linguistic forms like pronouns, proper nouns, and noun phrases that speakers use to refer to entities.

The process of understanding what a referring expression refers to, often requiring background knowledge and shared context.

The process of drawing conclusions based on what you already know, used in understanding referring expressions.

Referring back to something already mentioned, often using pronouns.

Referring forward to something that hasn't been mentioned, often using pronouns.

The knowledge a speaker assumes the listener has, influencing how they communicate.

Actions performed through language, like making requests, giving commands, or asking questions.

Linguistic forms used for different speech acts, like the imperative mood for commands.