Introduction to Microbiology

Learning Objectives

• Biology, microbiology, and virology are three different but related fields.
• Understanding microbiology is significant for pharmacy technicians.
• Organisms are classified into different kingdoms and taxa.
• Infections can be caused by Plantae.
• Infections can be caused by fungus.

What is Microbiology

• Microbiology studies small organisms
• It encompasses the study of microorganisms
• There are eight branches of microbiology:
  • Bacteriology: the study of bacteria.
  • Immunology: the study of the immune system. Relates to the relationships between pathogens and their hosts.
  • Mycology: the study of fungi.
  • Nematology: the study of nematodes (roundworms).
  • Parasitology: the study of parasites. Not all parasites are microorganisms, but many are
  • Phycology: the study of algae.
  • Protozoology: the study of protozoa, single-celled organisms.
  • Virology: the study of viruses.
• Microbiology encompasses all aspects of microorganisms, including behaviour, evolution, ecology, biochemistry, and physiology.
• Microbiology also studies the pathology of diseases.

History of Microbiology

• Knowledge of tiny living things and their impact has been around since the late 19th century
• Until about the 1880s, people believed life could form out of thin air and sickness was caused by sins or bad odors.
• Different cultures have different opinions on the cause of disease.
• Diseases were thought to be also caused by bad smells, imbalance of the body, sins of the soul etc
• Contagion was linked to bad odors or spirits, like the devil, not tiny living creature.

Timeline of Important Historical Contributions

• Varo and Columella postulated that diseases were caused by invisible beings (Animalia minuta) inhaled or ingested in the first century BC.
• Fracastorius of Verona proposed Contagium vivum as a possible cause of infectious disease in 1546
• Von Plenciz suggested that each disease was caused by a separate agent in 1762
• Louis Pasteur (1822-95) gave the term microbiology. Microbiology roots back to the expansion and biological sciences development after 1850. Pasteur is known as the “Father of Modern Microbiology / Father of Bacteriology".
• Sedillot (1878) first used the term microbe.
• Robert Hooke, a 17th-century English scientist, first used a lens to observe the smallest unit of tissues he called "cells."
• Anton van Leeuwenhoek, observed "animalcules” with homemade microscopes.
• In 1676, Leeuwenhoek accurately described microorganisms (bacteria and protozoa) called ‘animalcules' (little animals)
• Leeuwenhoek is the "Father of microbiology" and the father of bacteriology and protozoology (protistology)..
• Leeuwenhoek transmitted over 200 letters from 1674-1723 to the Royal Society in London over 50 years

The Transition Period

• Most scientists believed simple life forms could arise through spontaneous generation.
• Life was thought to spring spontaneously from mud and lakes with sufficient nutrients, persisting until the late 19th century.
• Charles Darwin (1859) showed that the human body could be conceived as a creature susceptible to the laws of nature.
• He thought disease may be a biological phenomenon, rather than magic. Darwin's contributions are:
• Survival of the fittest
• Organisms adapt to fit their environment
• Formation of taxonomic categories based on evolutionary relationships

The Golden Age

• Microbiology's Golden Age began with Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch, who ran their own research institutes.
• Spontaneous generation was debunked by Louis Pasteur who performed experiments with a goosenecked flask.
• Robert Koch found the causes of animal diseases, such as anthrax and tuberculosis.
• Koch gave the first direct demonstration of the role of bacteria in causing disease.
• In 1876, Koch, a German physician, isolated anthrax bacillus (Bacillus anthracis) in 1876 and perfected the technique of isolating bacteria in pure culture.
• Koch's four postulates are;
  • The organism causing the disease can be found in sick individuals but not in healthy ones.
  • The organism can be isolated and grown in pure culture.
  • The organism must cause the disease when introduced to into a healthy animal.
  • The organism must be recovered from the animal infected and match the original.
• The combined efforts of Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch established the Germ theory of disease, that invisible microorganisms are the cause of disease.
• The development in medication and surgery improved dramatically when scientists knew that microbes caused disease.
• Hand washing and quarantine of patients infected reduced disease spread, making hospitals a place for care.
• Lord Joseph Lister (1827-1912), a famous English surgeon, is the Father of Antiseptic surgery

Development of Vaccines

• In the late 18th century, milkmaids who contracted cowpox from cows were spared deadly smallpox outbreaks in England.
• Edward Jenner used pus from cowpox scabs to vaccinate people against smallpox.
• Edward Jenner (1749-1823), an English physician, first prevented smallpox
• This process was called vaccination from the latin word 'Vacca' meaning cow.
• Using cowpox virus to protect smallpox became more common than more risky method of immunizing with actual virus.
• Emile Roux (1853-1933) and Alexandre Yersin, French bacteriologists, demonstrated toxin production in broth cultures of the diphtheria organism.
• Gerhard Domagk experimented synthetic dyes in 1935 and reported that Prontosil, a red dye, killed Streptococci and Staphylococci in mice, but not agents in a test tube.
• In 1929, Sir Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin.
• Fleming was interested in killing pathogens since working on wound infections during World War 1.
• Advancements in molecular biology resulted in understanding the genetic code, DNA regulation, and RNA translation into protien.
• Research switched when researching these processes switched from studying plant and animal cells, to bacteria.

Founding Fathers

• The founding fathers include Robert Hooke, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, Louis Pasteur, Robert Koch, Lord Joseph Lister, Edward Jenner, Paul Ehrlich, Alexander Fleming and many others.

Types of Cells

• Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells are distinct. The structures of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells differ.
• Prokaryotic cells lack a distinct nucleus and other organelles due to the absence of internal membranes.
• Eukaryotic any cell that has defined nucleus.
• The eukaryotic cell has a nuclear membrane surrounding the nucleus, where chromosomes are located.

Taxonomy

• Taxonomy is biological classification of living and extinct organisms.
• The term is derived from the Greek taxis (“arrangement”) and nomos (“law”).
• Taxonomy sets botany and zoology arrangements by the kinds of animals and plants.
• Animals are classified by domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus and species.
• Seven obligatory ranks are accepted by zoologists and botanists, including domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus and species.

Kingdoms - Key Terms

• Aerobic: Requires oxygen for survival; means 'with air' and the body produces energy with oxygen.
• Anaerobic: Grows only in absence of oxygen; active in the absence of free oxygen
• Facultative anaerobes: Can survive without oxygen or with small amounts of oxygen.
• Binary Fission: Asexual reproduction by separation into two.
• Unicellular: one cell.
• Heterotrophic: enzyme activity in which the substrate binds to the enzyme at only one site and a differing molecule modifies the reaction.
• Homotropic: enzyme activity where substrate binds to the enzyme at the same sites.
• In 1969, Robert Whittaker, proposed five kingdoms taxonomic world biota classifications: Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, Protista, and Monera.

Kingdoms

• Plantae: Chloroplasts, vacuoles, cellulose cell wall.
• Animalia: Derive energy from food, nucleus contains DNA, no cell wall.
• Fungi: DNA contained within nuclear membrane, fleshy-type, yeast, molds, aerobes or facultative anaerobes
• Protista: Unicellular, eukaryotic, heterotrophic; most non-disease causing, but part of our normal flora and 4 types: Sarcodines, Ciliates, Flagellates, Sporozoans.
• Monera: Reproduce by binary fission, no nuclear envelope, thrive in inhospitable condidtions, can be aerobic and anaerobic.

Infectious plantae

• Azlealeas: Fatal; N/V, depression, difficulty breathing, coma
• Bleeding Hearts: Foliage & Roots = Poisonous in large amounts
• Foxglove: Large amounts = dangerously irregular pulse, Gl upset, & mental confusion. May be fatal
• Irises: Underground stems = severe Gl upset
• Larkspur: Young plant & seeds = Gl upset, excitement, & depression; May be fatal
• Mistletoe: Berries = Fatal to children and adults
• Oleander: Leaves & branches = fatal; extremely poisonous; affects heart; severe Gl upset
• Poison Ivy & Poison Oak: Allergic reactions; pruritus, blisters, redness, swelling. If Life threatening burns, this may cause smoke damage.
• Rhubarb: Leaf blade = fatal; large amounts = convulsions, coma, followed by death
• Wisteria: Seeds & pods = mild to severe Gl upset; Children often poisoned
• To treat these conditions many medications are used
  • Benadryl – Oral & Topical
  • Hydrocortisone
  • Prednisone
• NAPRA website provides drug scheduling
• Health Canada or eCPS/CPS provides drug class, names, and adverse reactions.
• Dr. Reed's Poison Ivy formulation sold by pharmacy contains camphor, menthol, ethyl alcohol, sodium bicarbonate and distilled water.
• Animal diseases are bacterial or viral, true animal diseases are when animal creates own toxins, for example jellyfish.

Mycoses

• Skin infections, 20% population, caused by dead keratin
• Dermatophyte tinea named for location of infection and can occur on the skin or nails.
• Yeast
  • Candida: warm, moist areas and only infect when it is favorable
  • It can occur on the skin and mucous membrane
  • Candida albicans is a yeast-like organism part of normal flora.
  • Bacterial flora helps maintain balance
  • Antibiotics harmful to bacterial flora can spread cause fungus to grow and cause infections

Fungal Infections - Terminology

• Tinea manus: Hand
• Tinea pedis: Foot
• Tinea corporis: Body
• Tinea capitis: Head
• Tinea unguium: Nail
• Tinea pedis symptoms include peeling, flaking skin, redness, itching, and burning.
• Tinea pedis also caused by foul odor, skin cracks.
• Tinea Pedis can spread due to poor hygiene, direct contact, from an Infected person and from a contaminated surface.
• Prevention should be to change sock daily, dry foot, do not go to public bare foot and use anti fungal powder,

Onychomycosis (Tinea unguium) symptoms include discolored, thick skin and it is hard to cure.

• Tinea corporis (Ringworm) is contagious

Thrush symptons

• Thrush is a candida infection
• In infants it is common
• In adults it is a compromised immune system
• Use of inhaled corticosteroids

Tech Notes

• Meters are propellant Hydrofluoroalkane
• Dry contains diskus.
• Always rinse after corticosteriod.
• Do not exceed the recommend.
• 2% Miconazole powder in Mupirocin 2% used to help inflammation.

Anti Fungal Information:

• Destroy cell walls

• Will not destroy human cells

• Inhabit synthesis of fungal cell wall Used to treat:

• imidazoles and Triazoles

• Stunt Growth

• Terbinafine- Oral use, persist 2-3 weeks, can have nausea.

• Polyenes- Minimal

• Thiiocarbamates- Has None

• Ciclopirox- Can effect skin Topical Local Stinging/burning Redness Itchiness Blistering Oral

• Systemic

• Nausea

• Vomiting

• Rash

• Liver Toxicity

• Photophobia