Introduction to Mapping and Cartography

College 1: Introduction to Mapping and Cartography

• Mapping means "to bring something to someone's attention, to put it on the map" and comes from the Latin "Mappa" meaning cloth/sheet, on which maps used to be drawn.
• Cartography is derived from the Greek "χάρτης" (khartēs, "piece of paper") and "γραφία" (graphō, "writing").
• In early times, maps were figurative, ceremonial, and artistic.
• In the 1st century, the Greeks developed the concept of geometry.
• The 13th century was the period of "church maps".
• During the 14th century (Renaissance), more knowledge about the world was discovered, which benefited cartography.
• In the 17th century, the rise of 'Western science' impacted cartography.
• The 18th century (Nation States) introduced thematic maps.
• Since 1950, cartographic modelling and PC technology has developed.
• Since 1990, critical/radical cartography has emerged.
• The Atlas cosmographical considerations about the creation of the world and the shape of what has been created is an early example of an atlas.
• Gerardus Mercator (Gerard de Kremer) was a Dutch/Flemish cartographer who introduced mercator projection in 1569, and the Atlas logo.
• Abraham Ortelius (Abraham Ortels or Abraham Hortels) (1527-1598) was a Dutch/Flemish cartographer who created the first atlas in 1570, called Theatrum Orbis Terrarum ("Theatre of the World"), with 53 maps.
• A cartographer focuses on a space, and translates it into a story, through a map.
• Cartographers collect and select data to model and visualise the story.
• Cartographers classify, simplify, exaggerate, symbolise, manipulate and generalise to make the data suitable for the map.
• Cartographers design and construct the map, in which the projection of the earth on a flat surface is important.

Critical Reflection on Maps

• John Rennie Short: "All maps, in one sense are lies since they involve a massive partial (mis)representation of the solid world on a smaller object....Maps do show us the lie of the land, in the multiple sense of the word “lie.”.".
• All maps are to a certain extent incomplete and potentially misleading representations of reality.

College 2: Map Design and Visual Communication

• This lecture views cartography from the perspective of a communication process.
• The focus is on how data and classifications, cartographic legibility, and map types and cartographic conventions are related.
• The process involves transforming the "Reality" (given its complexity) into (geo)data and a map image, which then leads to interpretation by the user.
• A circle of reality, map, user and reality indicates that people's perception of reality is based on representations such as maps.
• Important aspects include abstraction and representation.
• The effectiveness of communication depends on the target group, the available (geo) data, the created map image, the makers, and the intent of the map.
• Maps reflect reality depending on the means of data collection, editing, and classification used.
• The readability and comprehensibility of representations are influenced by geographic and thematic identification, color usage, and composition.
• The making of a map starts with analysing and processing 'Mappable data' in a process of 8 steps.
• Statistics and data classifications play a crucial role.
• Classification methods can lead to different averages and emphases in the data.

Types of Information for Data Visualisation

• Nominal: Classifications or features. Displayed with a distinctive color usage.
• Ordinal: Relative values (more or less important, higher or lower risk). Displayed with a color gradient throughout classes.
• Ratio: Absolute values. Displayed with a color gradient as a 'spectrum'.
• Interval values: Values without absolute zero point, not multipliable. Displayed with a color gradient as a 'spectrum’ in the right proportion.
• Geodata is mapped by means of editing and classification.
• The cartographer makes choices in the editing and classifications that determine which parts of the dataset are emphasised or omitted.
• The 'type' of information determines which cartographic conventions are relevant.

Cartographic Legibility - Identification

• Legibility includes identification, both external and internal.
• Geographic identification concerns recognising the area displayed.
• External geographic identification depends on the representation, as well as the knowledge and experience with the area of the user.
• Internal geographic identification consists in the recognition of the depicted area on the map itself, where the same styling at different crops is important.
• Thematic identification concerns understanding the displayed phenomena.
• Internal thematic identification is a clear (visual) agreement between legend and map is essential.
• Externally, you can ask what the objects of the map look like 'in real life'.

Questions for Cartographic Legibility

• Is it clear which region/place it's about?
• Is it possible for the reader to `get lost' in the map:?
• Is it clear which phenomenon it's about?
• Are all objects/colors well-explained in the legend?

Cartographic Conventions

• These affect the reading process.
• Factors that influence readability include scale/level of detail which affect what aspects are dominant and which are marginalised/omitted.
• Form is the visual means of transferring information. The choice of expression depends on the essence of the map and the type of information.
• Using colors be logical and meet the conventions, depending on the data. An incorrect color use can influence the interpretation.
• Abstraction in Mapmaking with Vectordata includes techniques like Simplification, Combination, Smoothing, Enhancement, and Selection.
• Bertin's graphic variables define the looks and reading of qualitative and quantitative information.
• Conventional map types include a dot map/density map, which displays statistical data as dots.
• A figurative map/quantity map is a dot map where the size of the dots renders the data value.
• A choropleth map is a quantitative differences map per surface, with limited colours.
• Isolines map displays equal values.
• A 3D spatial model is a 3D visualisation of data already in an isolines map.
• A cartogram is a diagrammatic view of statistical ratios.
• An anamorphosis map is a geometrical distortion based on attributes.
• A movement map displays the movement of goods or people (arrows).
• An essential map element is the Composistion, a good cartographic map that includes a Title, Legend, Scale, North arrow, Additional information, or a map window.
• Visual Relay' is the order in which the elements on the map are read.

Practical Guideline

• Determine the target group, the purpose of your map, the essence, and the necessary information/data to show on the map.
• Take time to sketch a first image, collect data, classify it, and show it clearly, then optimise and add more to the map.
• Take care of the cartography.
• Evaluate the end result with a fresh look.
• This lecture emphasizes cartography as a form of visual communication.

College 3: Intro Arcgis + coordinate system

• Nautical charts were important in the Age of Discovery.
• The Netherlands played a role in shipbuilding, seafaring and cartography in that period.
• The 17th century was the 'Golden Age' of the Netherlands, characterized by trade and colonies.
• Back then, the coastline was mapped cartographically from ships.
• John Snow's cholera map from 1854 in London is regarded as an early form of a GIS map, where the location of a polluted water-pump was detected by charting cholera deaths per address.
• Nowadays, anyone can draw on online geographic maps.

Modern Maps

• Modern maps are located in digital Geographic Information Systems (GIS).
• GIS features include an "eye from above", generalisations, a Cartesian grid, and layers linked to the earth's surface.
• Current GIS is in line with Western legal and economic frameworks (private ownership).
• GIS is a computer system for storing, managing, analysing and presenting geospatial information.
• GIS components include computer hardware and software, spatial (georeferenced) data, data management and analysis procedures, and stakeholders.
• GIS integrates a location/spatial form on the earth's surface (geometry in map layers) with administrative data in a database (attribute data).
• Geodata abstracts the earth's surface to 2D (projection): vector (points, lines, areas), raster (grids), and 3D.
• Layers are map images with items such as colour and symbology
• Geometry is spatial forms, georeferenced to the earth's surface using coordinates in vector or raster format.
• Attribute data is an administrative database linked to objects/grid cells.
• Feature Classes are spatial object types in a geometry form and properties.
• Georeference is geometry linked to its coordinate system (local or global).
• Spatial data/geo-informatie/geodata refers to the above.
• Example ArcGIS terminology includes legend, feature classes, layers, data, and projection.
• PDOK.nl (Public Service on the Map) is a good online platform.

Critiques of GIS

• The GIS model is considered masculine.
• Maps are not objective but perspectives of mental representations.
• Instrument of nation states.
• It emphasizes on quantitative aspects and generalizations, where that character can mistakenly seem scientific.
• This tension is leading towards new counter-mapping movements.

Spatial Analyze With GIS

• Data driven, answers spatial questions.
• Important elements are spatial operators.
• The seven spatial operators are Join, Buffer, Dissolve, Clip, Erase, Intersect, and Union.

Sieve Analyzer

• GIS-method where map layers are stacked to determine suitable areas by filtering out unsuitable ones.
• A methodological approach means incrementally filtering based on datasets.
• The principle is to sieve suitable areas and filter others.
• Multiple criteria are applied.
• A sieve analysis was used in the province of Limburg to find a location for motocross.

GIS method cartography

• How maps are made to tell a story graphically is described.
• A schema for making structured maps involves: Focusing attention, Collecting and selecting data, Processing data, Designing the map, and reading/interpreting the map.
• Scaling and generalisation.

Map Types

• Includes Thematic maps and topographic maps.
• There are examples of combined thematic charts, which show relative percentages in choropleth charts, where the units mentioned in the legend is important.
• When it comes to legends and class divisions, a legend is central and contains a breakdown of the legend item.
• Flexible class assignment using classes in choropleth.
• There are examples of class division within five classes- equal intervals, percentiles, and natural breaks.
• Extra information includes items like north arrows, author and year.
• Map title is also essential
• Graphical variables make up the language of the map.
• They determine the appearance and reading of qualitative and quantitative information.
• The 'How to lie with maps' book by Mark Monmonier emphasises all maps holding a certain degree of distortion.
• Working with colors is an important aspect of graphic variables.

Coordinate Systems

• Coordinate systems are grids around the earth, using mathematics in pairs of numbers: coordinates.
• Geographic Reference creates an ellipsoid base, approximating the earth's form.
• In coordinate systems, the reference must have a starting point that defines the datum.
• Geodetic datums specify the size and coordinate systems that map Earth.
• Datums use a spheroid with its own position, flattening, and radius.
• De aarde is niet regelmatig, maar onregelmatig als een aardappel, watt wordt weergegeven door het geoïde model, dat is gebaseerd op het zwaartekrachtveld.
• Different ellipsoid match earth's curve locally.
• Earth's radius is shortened 21km.
• Ellipsoids are defined by the semi-major axis and flattening factor.
• Bessel ellipsoid as RD reference for The Netherlands.

Geographic Versus Projected Coordinates

• Geographic coordinates: Based on a ellipsoid with latitude and longitude. They are measured in degrees, minutes, and decimals. Are ball coordinates rather than flat coordinates.

• Projected coordinates: Are flat coordinates Cartesian where applicable.

• Map projections are required to display the earth on a flat plane.

• Projecting a sphere to a flat plane involves distortion.

• Map projection types: Includes Azimuthal projection, Cylinder projection and Conic (cone) projection.

• UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator) divides the globe into zones with 6 degrees longitude.

• Does not align seamlessly zone limits.

Dutch Projection (RD): Rijksdriehoekstelsel

• It is stereographic with its midpoint in Amersfoort.
• Triangle measurement and its starting point.
• The ellipse has latitude longitude and scale.
• Coordinates in grid on a map project.

Combining Data In ArcGIS

• Data in different coordinate systems can overlay well.

3. Height In GIS

• Includes Topographic surfaces with its ellipsoid and geoid.
• Height refers to the relation of, satellites to ellipsoide, and in general.
• NAP is the Standard for height measurements.

College 4: Participatory GIS / participatory mapping and ethics in mapping

• Classical communication studies started with basic sender-receiver models.
• The multi-actor communication complexity model recognizes that messages are formulated and interpreted differently, influenced by context, culture and political settings.
• “The constructivist turn in cartography" focuses on graphical variables (modernist), cards as power producing pieces.
• "The Information Age” leads to earth observation and surveillance technology.
• Spatial Data Infrastructures (SDI) are a ‘Top-down’ approach vanuit het perspectief van de staat, gericht op “mapping for the masses". Collaborative mapping.
• PGIS is used to counter mapping.

Participatory Mapping

• Different mapping through GIS theory.
• Alan MacEachren introduced “Geovisualisation” for GIS Cartography.

Theory

• PGIS is a merge of methodes with GIS.
• Participatory, with community.
• Brazilië, with Google Earth, is fighting deforestation.
• Kenya has created a ‘P3DM' with the help of 3D scale models.

Code of Ethics Questions

• Who participates, whose voice counts, what has been changed.
• The ethical code and the `who-questions' are fully read over in the article over practical ethics.
• These codes respect the principle of free.
• They aim to act with “counter mapping.
• Right to self-determination.

The Rights to Lands

• People must speak and explore.
• Copy cadastral registrations.

Mapping For A Healthy Space

• Three ways to explain "kaartgebruik" en "kaarten maken"- Design frame, analytic frame, and negotiation frame.

The Map As Analyse Instrument

• Based on geographic and projected coordinations.
• The Netherlands' project is stereographic.
• Combining data in the right coordinated systems.

College 5: Cartopolitiek & Nieuwe C/artografie

• Cartopolitiek is politics of macht and belief.
• Kaarten are representational objects and art.
• Modern kaarten are seen as objective from the measurable and understandable world.
• Postmodern is de kaart als een intersubjectieve en eindeloos maakbare representatie van een wereld die niet meetbaar, niet definitief afgrenzbaar en niet definitief kenbaar is, maar "contested".
• 'Map trap' beschrijft de valkuilen van traditionele kaartvormen die bepaalde aspecten van de werkelijkheid verhullen en andere normaliseren.
• 'Border Map Trap' is het standaard intekenen van grenzen als lijnen op de kaart, wat een surrealistische voorstelling is en methodologisch nationalisme versterkt.
• 'Migration Map Trap' is the gelijkstellen van mensen op de vlucht.

Counter Mapping

• It aims to avoid “map traps” by alternative means.
• Altering "framing" when drawing refugees from Syria.
• Turning the kaart such as in de Middellandse Zee.
• Visualizing inequality.
• Connectivity mapping with aerial and river.
• Van Houtum promotes 'kaarten bevrijden."
• Rekacewicz is bekend van Radical Cartography.