Introduction to Geography

Definition: The study of the Earth's landscapes, environments, and the relationships between people and their environments.
Branches:
- Physical Geography: Natural features and processes (landforms, climate, ecosystems).
- Human Geography: Spatial aspects of human existence (cultures, economies, urban development).

Latitude:
- Horizontal lines (parallels) that measure distance north or south of the Equator (0°).
- Ranges from 0° at the Equator to 90° at the poles (North and South).
Longitude:
- Vertical lines (meridians) that measure distance east or west of the Prime Meridian (0°).
- Ranges from 0° at the Prime Meridian to 180° (east and west).
Coordinates: A specific location on Earth is identified using a combination of latitude and longitude (e.g., 40° N, 74° W).

Location:
- Absolute: Exact coordinates (latitude and longitude).
- Relative: Position in relation to other places.
Place:
- Physical characteristics: Landforms, climate, flora, and fauna.
- Human characteristics: Culture, architecture, population.
Human-Environment Interaction:
- How humans adapt to and modify the environment.
- Examples: Deforestation, urbanization, agriculture.
Movement:
- How and why people, goods, and ideas move.
- Includes migration, trade, and communication.
Region:
- Areas that share common characteristics (cultural, economic, physical).
- Types: Formal regions (defined by official boundaries), functional regions (defined by a function), and vernacular regions (perceived regions).

Layers of the Earth:
1. Crust: Thin outer layer where life exists; includes continental and oceanic crust.
2. Mantle: Thick layer beneath the crust; composed of semi-solid rock that flows slowly.
3. Outer Core: Liquid layer composed mainly of iron and nickel; generates Earth's magnetic field.
4. Inner Core: Solid innermost layer; extremely hot and composed mainly of iron.
Tectonic Plates: Large slabs of Earth's lithosphere that move and interact, causing earthquakes, volcanic activity, and the formation of mountains.

Climate:
- Long-term atmospheric conditions in a particular area (temperature, precipitation).
- Major climate types: Tropical, arid, temperate, polar, and continental.
Ecosystems:
- Community of living organisms interacting with their environment.
- Components: Biotic (plants, animals) and abiotic (soil, water, climate) factors.
Biodiversity: Variety of life within an ecosystem, influenced by climate, geography, and human activities.
Climate Change: Long-term alteration of temperature and typical weather patterns, impacting ecosystems and biodiversity.

Geography studies the Earth's landscapes and environments, alongside human-environment interactions.
Branches:
- Physical Geography examines natural features and processes like landforms and climate.
- Human Geography focuses on spatial aspects of human existence, including cultures and urban development.

Latitude measures distances north or south from the Equator, ranging from 0° to 90° at the poles.
Longitude measures distances east or west from the Prime Meridian, ranging from 0° to 180°.
Locations are identified with coordinates combining latitude and longitude, e.g., 40° N, 74° W.

Location:
- Absolute refers to exact coordinates, while Relative describes a place's position in relation to other locations.
Place: Involves physical characteristics (landforms, climate) and human characteristics (culture, population).
Human-Environment Interaction: Explores how humans adapt to and alter their environment, such as through deforestation and urbanization.
Movement: Examines the mobility of people, goods, and ideas, including migration and trade.
Region: Defined areas sharing common traits, categorized as formal, functional, or vernacular regions.

Layers of the Earth:
- Crust: The thin outermost layer, which includes both continental and oceanic crust.
- Mantle: A thick, semi-solid rock layer below the crust that gradually flows.
- Outer Core: A liquid layer rich in iron and nickel that creates Earth's magnetic field.
- Inner Core: The solid, extremely hot innermost layer primarily composed of iron.
Tectonic Plates: Large sections of the lithosphere that shift and interact, leading to earthquakes, volcanoes, and mountain formation.

Climate: Refers to long-term weather conditions in an area, characterized by temperature and precipitation.
Major climate types include tropical, arid, temperate, polar, and continental.
Ecosystems: Composed of communities of organisms interacting with their environment, impacted by both biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) factors.
Biodiversity: The array of life within an ecosystem shaped by climatic conditions and human influences.
Climate Change: Represents long-term shifts in temperature and weather patterns, affecting ecosystems and biodiversity.