Introduction to Forensic Science

Forensic Science Basics

• Forensic science covers criminal prosecution, consumer and environmental protection, health and safety at work, and civil proceedings such as negligence and contracts.
• Forensic science interacts with science, policing, government, and law.
• Crime Scene Investigators (CSIs) are civilians employed by the police, not forensic practitioners
• A CSI's role is to search for and recover evidence, not to perform analysis, and their training differs from forensic practitioners.
• Forensic science is only needed when police investigators require clarification of specific issues, such as if a crime occurred, who is responsible, and if there's enough evidence for prosecution.

Forensic Scientist Activities

• Forensic scientists examine collected materials to offer new insights or confirm existing data.
• They present findings in reports for court case preparation.
• Forensic scientists can provide written or verbal evidence that is based on the case evaluation and interpretation to deliver justice.

Distinct Categories of Forensic Activities

• Analysis which involves conducting scientific tests to identify or match materials
• Interpretation assign statistical probability to ambiguous test results.
• Reconstruction uses combined results to reconstruct an event.
• Opinion entails expert evaluation of circumstances, offering professional opinions.

UK Court System

• The UK, similar to the US, uses an adversarial court system.
• Two opposing parties (prosecution and defence) argue their cases before an impartial judge or jury.
• Each side presents their case, and the judge or jury decides based on arguments and evidence.

Forensic Scientist Court Behavior

• Forensic scientists are independent witnesses and should be impartial, regardless of who employs them.
• Give evidence based on personally conducted and/or directly supervised work.
• Scientists should use validated methods for analysis or interpretation, which should be available publicly.

Forensic Medical Examiners

• Forensic medical examiners are qualified GPs with specialized training as pathologists or forensic medical examiners.
• Pathologists determine the causes of death and are registered with the home office.
• Medical examiners deal with mental health assessments, sexual assault cases, and suspicious or unexpected deaths.

UK Forensic Science Model

• The UK operates a mixed model of provision.
• Some activities are performed by the police
• other activities are contracted out to private forensic providers.
• The UK is the only country with a privatized forensic science model viewed by many in the field as a failure.

Historical Context

• The 18th century's agricultural and industrial revolution saw the start of the Bow Street Runners by Henry Fielding in 1742, who investigated crimes.
• Sir Robert Peel helped create the Metropolitan Police force in 1829.
• HQ Became Scotland Yard and police constables were called parish or petty constables.
• Prior to established labs, police relied on expert knowledge from individuals and hospitals, pioneering forensic techniques.

Measurement of Life

• Anthropometry was the verification of identity through body characteristics beginning in 1883.
• Anthropometry was considered superior to general descriptions because every human differs in exact body measurement”.
• The process had first use in the 1902 Joseph Reibel murder case.

Exchange Principle

• Edmund Locard established Locard's exchange principle, due to difficulty finding scientific experts, leading to modern crime scene searches.

First Forensic Evidence

• The first forensic evidence was admitted to court in 1901.
• A blood fingerprint on a cashbox matching Alfred Stratton led to Stratton and his brother Albert's 1905 hanging for the Farrow murder.

First UK Lab

• The first dedicated lab opened in Hendon in 1935 by the Metropolitan Police.
• This laboratory's success led to the Home Office forming their 'Home Office Forensic Science Service' (HOFSS).

Home Office Forensic Science Service (HOFSS)

• HOFSS successfully introduced revolutionary technologies.
• The first commercial intoximeter and the world's first national DNA database were developed in 1995.
• The Government directly financed all casework and research.

Sir Alec Jeffrey

• Sir Alec Jeffrey is the father of DNA fingerprinting.
• The first implementation was September 10, 1984, in an immigration case to determine family kinship.

First use of DNA in Court

• In a Leicestershire village in 1983 and 1986, young girls were raped and murdered.
• A mass screen of 5000 men in local villages yielded no results.
• A local man confessed which did not match the semen DNA.
• Colin Pitchfork was found due to a woman overhearing that another had taken the test.
• Pitchfork was ultimately sentenced to life for two murders.

DNA Profiling Budget

• 60% of the metropolitan police forensic science budget is spent on DNA profiling.

Forensic Science Service (FSS)

• The forensic science service became an 'executive agency' in 1991, operating independently from the government.
• The goal was self-finance and charge police forces for services.
• The Forensic Science Services grew to five operational laboratories across the UK.
• Its creation led to the commercial forensic science market with private companies.
• Emphasis on speed and cost reduction led to quality sacrifices.

The End of FSS

• The market moved to a 'tendering' model.
• The FSS closed locations following market share losses and government funding cuts.
• The government announced the closure of FSS by 2012.

Current Forensic Provision

• Police forces operate as 'consortiums' in the UK.
• Forensic services are a mix of providers and police provision across 43 forces in England and Wales.
• A company-bidding tendering model is ongoing, causing instability.
• The market is dominated by eurofins, cellmark (now EFS), and key forensic.
• Police carry out over 80% of work 'in-house'.
• Forensic spending overall has fallen significantly. Funding decreased from £120M in 2008 to £50M in 2018.
• Spending on commercial providers has decreased.

Tendering Process

• Police forces are the primary customers of private providers.
• Police budgets have fallen.
• The prices per analysis have fallen.
• DNA profiles which were £500 ten years ago are now £100.
• Unsustainable Companies are pushed to offer turnaround times.
• It has been avoided.
• Companies are prevented from making a profit.

Companies Collapse

• Major crises can occur with continuity and exhibit degradation.
• Disruptions occur for new/current casework.
• Who will do outsourced specialised work?
• You will get highly skilled staff loss.

Forensic Science Regulator

• FSR was created in 2008, within the home office.
• It ensures free independent quality standard monitoring from the government.
• It provides new quality standards, advice and guidance and creates FSR codes for service providers and practitioners alike.
• Standards are currently voluntary.
• The regulator has statutory powers from October 2022 due to statutory powers being given in 2021.
• FSR monitors the accreditation of forensic testing laboratories.
• Accredited laboratories require service clearance with the UK accreditation e.g (UKAS) and the International organization for standardization.
• The ISO 17025 is the standard with guidance on laboratory quality, management and operation.
• The drug control centre, DNA analysis King’s and the city of London police fingerprint are King’s ISO accredited Laboratories.

Scientific Limitations

• Scientific Methods have detection, quantification, subjective observations, comparisons, measurement uncertainties, technology and human factor limits.
• Samples face size, substrate, detail, destruction, aging and obfuscation based limits.
• Solutions needed by courts, is subject of errors.
• Reliability challenges must be systematically controlled.
• Quality standards for services must be set.
• Both prosecution and defence standards.
• Police, commercial, governmental and academic regulators must have the same standards.

Correct Forensic Science

• The key responsibility is a compliance mechanism, which should regulate not inspect.
• Learning opportunities should be used as opportunities and not as witch hunts.
• Important root cause analysis should occur.
• Investigations should look pass human error and at the system.
• Questions asked should include why a person or there is too much time or stress?
• There maybe to few checks or automation needs to be automated.
• Contamination linked two with contaminated DNA.
• It highlighted the point of a strong evidence holding and strict protocol..
• Staff eliminate databases

Staff Elimination Databases

• This database helps contain DNA profiles and fingerprints.
• To avoid contamination and know proper evidence.
• This is used in handling evidence, lack of competence/integrity and bias.

Error Issues

• Contextual bias in toxicology exist.
• Manipulation of data and proficiency handling always occur.
• The submission of units and exhibits varies in performance.
• Sampling,resumes and reports of contamination of assault centre of a SARC are common issue identified for errors.

Reporting Line

• The optimal approach is usually the last line of defence

Forensics Science Report Regulation Act

• The 2021 Regulator science act allows new entity and gives the power to:
• issue codes.
• investigate concerns.
• avoid poor criminal service.
• Becoming a forensic regulator helps improve standards in practises.
• It implies a power to follow standards.
• To perform the best activity.

Core Standards

• Quality ≠ #Standards ≠ The higher standard are agreed.
• Accreditation is the quality in having a particular performance.

Standard Document

• Forensics science regulator (FSR) and code of practice are mandatory for standards in the UK.

Main Guideline

• The international laboratory accreditation G19 and the consistency in practises and published by the ILAC.

How to Perform Forensics

• The international standardization process (ISO)/ and reliability analytical testing and calibration.

Accurate Investigation Methods

• Follow Standardisation (ISO) and Electrotechnical Commission (IEC).
• Need scene investigation to ensure custody.

Forensic Medical Examiner

• International organization of standardization is also important.

Code of Practise

• The FSR ensures consistent recognise qualities and forensic standard.
• This implies a real reliability and evidence in court.

Accreditation is not...

• It not any part of layer that doesn’t assess its work.
• You shouldn’t tick any boxes, and must complete assessments.
• The is never mistake.

Standardisation

• UKAs and The Forensic Science Regulator all set quality standards for operation through inspections.

Standards

• The organisation needs to meet standards of FSR codes by ISO to prove competence is met.
• Must use 17025/17020 etc.
• The way or culture of organisation has to be to standard.

Accountability

• Accountable to ensure controls lead to defined data, this can happen through:
• Legal accounting.
• Design organisations.
• Review leadership.

Sustainable Management

• There is is various forms of sustainable process, from:
• Facilities to outer providers.
• Accurate equipment and research.
• The validity and control of data.
• Audit and review processes.

Accreditation

• It needs to be competent throughout and maintain reliable results. Need capable and well documented methods too peer review internally and conduct audits.

Validity

• Validity is testing its method with limited.
• The purpose is to be more transparent.

Process

• To require and manage these assessment need to be conducted.
• You also should have proper record and validity set.

Data Use

• It has to be loop so that the results have a base to go back on for assessment, otherwise there is no statement of completion.

Drug Analysis

• Laws need to be put into place with the right evident matrix.
• Analysis has to have very specific user requirements.

Risk Management

• It also have to work at testing to identify concentrated data.
• Which require acceptance of a list and to proper data from the show to have that list.
• You need to be able to see that the test and the result must meet proficiency.

Scientific Based Results

• Using validated tested data will reduce chance of deviation.

Accuracy

• It also has to be done to an acceptable standard.

PT Tests

• Tests and processes must compare my lab to others. Tests should be in a way that’s manageable and gives opportunity to improve.

Validation

• Validations processes give constructive feedback and are always effective.

Controls

• There should always be effective controls active to help effective quality by following regulations.
• This culture is crucial for key maintenance.

Frameworks

• The forensics regulator helps in providing quality skills to the expert and documents recording too setting boundaries.

Data

• It important to support and complying with data and criminal process.

Service

• Acting always for defence and as a gate keeper is the most effective measure of a barrister process.
• There must be real evidence and must be valid to be taken to senior level. Forensic medical and evidence analysis.

Science

• It all must apply and be subject to defence review.

Forensics Science

• It is important not to preserve impartially for the well being of parties and in turn helps deliver court responsibility.

Bombings

• Bombings have often been used in terrorist setting and causes mass murder. All terrorist with explosives were charged.
• Evidence should connect the Hoey and Fibre due to contamination.

Omagh Bombings

• Omagh emphasizes the importance of maintaining forensic integrity even when using more precise methods.
• User of requirement should help measure and intended the propose.

Events

• Challengers are a result of failure is to the fact space can damage
• Tragedies are due to user thorough testing through women are causes.

User Requirements

• You questions should be result based and always check the detection of substances.

Quote

• "The laws hold that is it’s better ten good people live instead of on person suffering".

The "Golden Hour" principle

• a precious window.
• You collect information and prevent loss.

Aim

• You identify and remand the right people.
• It always useful to get quick testimony while memories are fresh.
• Should help save and prevent contaminated from recurring.

Important

• Crimes that are undiscovered are never followed.
• More less serious crimes mean few attendance.

chain of Cody

• Need to know the written data to follow the time of action of each piece of evidence.
• The movement show the time and location.
• The preservation process avoid loss.

Contamination Factors

• Access must be in order at all time to maintain security of data.
• Access to data and scene can also be done indoor and out.

Control

• Controls must be in order at all times, for proper quality and clean scene.
• There is a order where each peice is important such as clean gloves goggles, armour , and suit.

Data Documentation

• To document a piece can have important consequences, follow:
• Photography - Scales notes and sketches.
• video scanning.
• There should be a story with clear cut and documentation and detail.
• There most be a level replicability such from depositions to the exact position.
• There also should be no writing between line and or missing data.
• Everything should be labelled properly and clear packaging.

Labeling

• Protect and don’t lose a good piece of evidence with labelling.
• Be clear and make sure it is safe to collect and test.
• Make sure continuity is always apparent to find your sample!

Bags

• Some bags are used and there also must be a precaution taken into for to safely contain them and avoid issues.

Evidence

• It is important to have evidence and to know the important measures for sharp bodies so that there is non skin puncture.

Immolisation

• There has to be proper seal of what we don’t want damage.

Wrap

• A duggists wrap is often to keep store safe.
• What is it used for : Tablet hairs and fibers and gas and plastic..

Control

• Nylon and air bag to prevent liquid or volatiles escaping should always be used.

Damage Control

• On data collected make sure you contact those for help.

Types

• wet sample and dry and how that affects transfer and preservation of data.

Evidence Timeline and Transport Techniques

• Crime timelines is a process and and each location has its own sheet.

Storage

• Storage is always in secure areas logged with correct times.

ViewPoints

• There are evaluative that look the case and evaluate it as investigate with the right prospect.
• It evaluates under multiple ways often consider statistic and always have a a full detail.

Data Problems

• There are often issue of language as what the data and the case is built on it.
• There should not be as a limit be a always have honesty.

The Truth

• Fact can be assumed but there must be in between the expert opinion.
• There needs to be good invalided method control.
• There need to be competent and honest.

Evidence

• It is physical evidence act and there is mental factors when it comes to trial.
• However scientist shouldn’t be influence of the court and what is fact.
• Scientist need to show the all details in order to make a proper analyse.

Events in Court

• One has to make sure what is done and who is doing it with accurate facts.

Testing

• There should always be equal distribution of material of the material in each trial.

The Law

• In this we want to always follow the correct probability statement. This prevent falling to the common “prosecutors’.
• Scientist have limited influence and should always talk about facts .
• As all points is not about influence just data from start - finish.

Medical Case

• Sexual asssult cases are common and often includes different methods.
• The right tools are key to transparency.
• Always look at facts and take in consideration with you in court.

Conditional Thinking

• Do this test to see if the analysis is always correct.

Technique

• Always remember to use proper techniques e.g the grid or the linear and follow visual expectations.
• The must all be followed in order.
• There must also be an Alternate source and method of lighting The light will provide accurate data for inspection.
• Take photos when the trace is present to account for everything.
• Use tools and keep records of trace and detail.
• To help follow the proper procedure from collection from point to the end result where you get key information.
• Take you time and select method well, knowing what can be useful for future use.

Amount of Materials

• The correct amping for specific details is paramount to accuracy and to minimize contamination .
• A high standard has be kept, there has to be good understanding.

Microscopy

• To see what’s there has to be well understood e.g. to see blood cell size or volume.

Lab

• Notes as in the lab should also be be included and have detail descriptions.

Exhibits List

• Always detail exhibits as if the gold etc.

Labelling

• The most have correct date and sign.

The Crime

• Make sure that what is happening is safe and there is little damage..

Crimes

• Major crime, minor and all the areas crime exist.

Death

• Always check for all causes as death don’t always appear at crime scenes and must be investigate.

Collection

• The way you collect evidence must always be noted and taken careful of.

The Court

• Each piece of data has the important and the analise has to be presented in a good approach.
• There must be people and witness’s who need to keep in check.
• The type of evidence will be questioned for detail and honesty for accurate prosecution.

Medical

• Forensic science and the weapon is have an important role in criminal cases.
• They exist all around the world in many.
• They are used for many including killing or defence and operation and must check the firearm for more.
• We need to known fire arms and parts and should the different style that can be used.
• Each has a different use for their part and use of a gun.. the ammunition can be different or similar to any other.
• Parts have to be examined properly to give a good result for evidence by and expert.
• When you do examine to ensure accuracy of why some thing happened.

Cartilage Parts

• Part include power primer case.
• These must also be look into detail.

Damage Detail

• The way things will change will always vary.

Bullets

• There will always be land when bullets touch and must be tested at some point.

The Barrel

• What is shot from weapon has to be precise to have deadly consequences.

Weapon Data

• One has to take in mind that if damage is often the weapon for it has been tampered with..

Measurement

• Calibre is important to to know.

Gun Use

• It will either be in the path or at location of the shooter.

Gun and Ammo.

• All ammo will leave mark and can also be used to catch any type that happened the.

The Machine

• All system are automated now which helps compare results with machines and is known as ABIS.
• It needs a system to extract data and good software to find matches.
• There is many ABIS company and that can find all to type.
• The image result shows and ejector card.

Anti-Doping Rules

• Doping or drug enhancement is very much frowned upon due to their medical effect.
• The list is long and with new things developing WADA often is on the look out. It takes two separate list as it always needs a competition. list.
• They are many way to by bass this to name s,c,p,d,g,a,n,b,s,a all have different side effects and will require various test.
• That’s where WADA becomes important for their test will always look for what you used.
• They can use different screen and extractions and test with what they know.
• And they take to be super sense and try for a result.
• The way doping is changing, now they are looking directly and indirectly when testing doping sample.
• There a are still many challenges with not having to much or new result that need to verified.

Tests

Here,

• Sensitivity is what they testing for and is it hard due to complexity of testing that what all the results they will to get.
• What to look like all are anabolic steroids all do bad so testing becomes and important.
• As said before testing as to been very precise.
• Hormones. the best way of that to understand and avoid certain disease’s , but with that said they need to test the hormone first.
• They are many challenges in it is all a work of getting test done quickly.
• There often is issues with all data that make the process tougher/
• The best way and easy ways is with blotch on a paper and doing a DNA analyse

DNA

• Data the was has to be and be checked with the highest and best quality.
• It has all to be done with a process.

Steroids

• It also to be note that is important that steroids affect hormone functions and this with high chances can give a lot of problem to one physical health and may cause disease.
• When the side effect are not at 100 and we need to do is what we now must do.

Methods

• To that in test. It important how test are conducted for us the best the right answers.
• We should that are are are testing. These points were made by well.

Genetics

• In the fact any two unrelated sample even between sexes will to have over 90% DNA link and 90 percent match.
• Genetic will have a role and will change as what is known.
• A the sample have to always to be clean to ensure no protein and help code.
• By just knowing that 1 or 2 % population may very the outcome.

Forensic DNA

• Forensics DNA profiling looks at short repeats of DNA one at the time.
• It helpful for know that talk amount the DNA helps talk percentage data.

DNA peak

• Peak number 1 can have longer data and vice versa.
• They also should be different to ensure correct data result.
• The approach data helps process, so you understand what the results will be.

DNA

• The amount it had as a low quantise will also affect a lot of factors.
• Contamination may be a main key one and you want to be able for those details.
• One should never be partial when talking about any type of data.
• When it comes to witness you can follow rule of thumb.

Experts opinions

• All opinions should have and is a must.

Crime

• The law has to have and should be fair. It is a barrister show to present it.

Quote

• "It is better to have 100 guilty to work free than one the cost to hurt a innocent" - Will Blassions

Types of Evidence

• The evidence and to what we can say or can’t.
• We have all to the the all type and show you’ve seen and if is not must follow hearsay because we must never.

The Courts Responsibilities

• Prosecution has to provide the right evidence and should say it’s that data is at fault.