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Questions and Answers
What is the primary focus of epidemiology?
What is the primary focus of epidemiology?
Which of the following is NOT identified as a core function of epidemiology?
Which of the following is NOT identified as a core function of epidemiology?
What aspect does measurement in epidemiology primarily focus on?
What aspect does measurement in epidemiology primarily focus on?
Which of the following does NOT belong to the 5 W's of epidemiology?
Which of the following does NOT belong to the 5 W's of epidemiology?
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Epidemiology is primarily considered which type of science?
Epidemiology is primarily considered which type of science?
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What characteristic distinguishes a proportion from a ratio?
What characteristic distinguishes a proportion from a ratio?
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Which of the following statements is true regarding rates?
Which of the following statements is true regarding rates?
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How is a percentage calculated from a proportion?
How is a percentage calculated from a proportion?
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Which of the following is NOT a measure of disease occurrence?
Which of the following is NOT a measure of disease occurrence?
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What does a mortality rate measure?
What does a mortality rate measure?
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Which of the following correctly describes a ratio?
Which of the following correctly describes a ratio?
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In the context of proportions, if A is 1 and B is 7, what is the proportion expressed as a decimal?
In the context of proportions, if A is 1 and B is 7, what is the proportion expressed as a decimal?
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Which statement best describes counts in the context of disease occurrence?
Which statement best describes counts in the context of disease occurrence?
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What is the denominator used to calculate the crude mortality rate?
What is the denominator used to calculate the crude mortality rate?
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Which statement correctly defines the infant mortality rate?
Which statement correctly defines the infant mortality rate?
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What does the neonatal mortality rate specifically measure?
What does the neonatal mortality rate specifically measure?
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What is the maternal mortality rate calculated from?
What is the maternal mortality rate calculated from?
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Which of the following statements best describes morbidity?
Which of the following statements best describes morbidity?
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How is the infant mortality rate expressed?
How is the infant mortality rate expressed?
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Which of the following is NOT a definition used for calculating mortality rates?
Which of the following is NOT a definition used for calculating mortality rates?
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What measure gives an overview of the occurrence of new cases of diseases in a population?
What measure gives an overview of the occurrence of new cases of diseases in a population?
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What is the purpose of calculating crude mortality rates?
What is the purpose of calculating crude mortality rates?
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What does a higher morbidity rate indicate about a population?
What does a higher morbidity rate indicate about a population?
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What is the first step in establishing the existence of an epidemic?
What is the first step in establishing the existence of an epidemic?
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Which type of case definition would allow for the identification of more cases, albeit with potential imprecision?
Which type of case definition would allow for the identification of more cases, albeit with potential imprecision?
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What key characteristic does 'Person' refer to when orienting data for an epidemic?
What key characteristic does 'Person' refer to when orienting data for an epidemic?
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Which type of epidemic classification is characterized by the spread of disease from person to person?
Which type of epidemic classification is characterized by the spread of disease from person to person?
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When analyzing data for an epidemic, what does the epidemic curve primarily display?
When analyzing data for an epidemic, what does the epidemic curve primarily display?
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Which of the following is NOT an element of control measures implemented during an outbreak?
Which of the following is NOT an element of control measures implemented during an outbreak?
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What is the purpose of classifying an epidemic using an epidemic curve?
What is the purpose of classifying an epidemic using an epidemic curve?
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Which statement best describes the process of searching for missing cases during an epidemic investigation?
Which statement best describes the process of searching for missing cases during an epidemic investigation?
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In the stage of case definition, what is the significance of distinguishing between exposure status and disease frequency?
In the stage of case definition, what is the significance of distinguishing between exposure status and disease frequency?
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When analyzing data for an epidemic, which method is commonly used for visual representation?
When analyzing data for an epidemic, which method is commonly used for visual representation?
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Which aspect does analytic epidemiology primarily seek to explore?
Which aspect does analytic epidemiology primarily seek to explore?
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What model is included in the three models used to understand the occurrence of disease?
What model is included in the three models used to understand the occurrence of disease?
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Which stage of disease is characterized by not being apparent and showing pathological changes?
Which stage of disease is characterized by not being apparent and showing pathological changes?
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Which of the following is considered a determinant of health?
Which of the following is considered a determinant of health?
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What type of prevention is used during the advanced stage of clinical disease?
What type of prevention is used during the advanced stage of clinical disease?
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Which of the following best describes the Bradford Hill criteria for causation?
Which of the following best describes the Bradford Hill criteria for causation?
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What is the primary role of public health surveillance?
What is the primary role of public health surveillance?
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Which of the following is an example of a biological source of disease?
Which of the following is an example of a biological source of disease?
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Which stage occurs after the onset of symptoms in the natural history of a disease?
Which stage occurs after the onset of symptoms in the natural history of a disease?
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In the context of disease transmission, what is the term for the initial habitat where the agent lives?
In the context of disease transmission, what is the term for the initial habitat where the agent lives?
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What does herd immunity rely on in a population?
What does herd immunity rely on in a population?
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Which of the following is NOT a mode of transmission for communicable diseases?
Which of the following is NOT a mode of transmission for communicable diseases?
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What is the goal of secondary prevention in public health?
What is the goal of secondary prevention in public health?
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What does Absolute Risk measure in a population?
What does Absolute Risk measure in a population?
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When is Relative Risk (RR) most accurately calculated?
When is Relative Risk (RR) most accurately calculated?
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What does it mean if the Confidence Interval (CI) includes 1?
What does it mean if the Confidence Interval (CI) includes 1?
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Which statement describes an Odds Ratio (OR)?
Which statement describes an Odds Ratio (OR)?
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What does Positive Predictive Value estimate?
What does Positive Predictive Value estimate?
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What does a Relative Risk (RR) of less than 1 indicate?
What does a Relative Risk (RR) of less than 1 indicate?
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What is the definition of a Primary case in an outbreak?
What is the definition of a Primary case in an outbreak?
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What term describes a disease occurring at persistent high levels within a community?
What term describes a disease occurring at persistent high levels within a community?
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Which characteristic of screening tests indicates their ability to correctly identify those without the disease?
Which characteristic of screening tests indicates their ability to correctly identify those without the disease?
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A test with a high sensitivity will significantly reduce which type of error?
A test with a high sensitivity will significantly reduce which type of error?
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In a mixed epidemic, what does the initial infection spread from, after common source exposure?
In a mixed epidemic, what does the initial infection spread from, after common source exposure?
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What is the purpose of health screening activities?
What is the purpose of health screening activities?
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What does an OR (Odds Ratio) equal to 1 indicate?
What does an OR (Odds Ratio) equal to 1 indicate?
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How is Attributable Risk defined?
How is Attributable Risk defined?
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Study Notes
Introduction to Epidemiology
- Epidemiology is the study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in specified populations, and the application of this knowledge to control health problems.
- Epidemiology is a quantitative science.
- Measurements are important in epidemiology, focusing on the distribution and determinants of health-related states and events.
- Epidemiology is a story about health-related states and events supported by data.
Core Epidemiological Functions
- Surveillance
- Field investigations
- Analytic studies
- Evaluation
- Linkages
- Policy
5 W's of Epidemiology
- What?
- When?
- Where?
- Who?
- Why?
Descriptive Epidemiology
- Describes the distribution of health-related states and events, as well as the frequency and pattern of these events.
- Key elements are time, place, and person.
Analytic Epidemiology
- Examines the cause-and-effect relationship between exposures and health outcomes.
- Investigates the determinants/causes of health issues.
- Quantifies associations to determine causal relationships.
Determinants of Health
- Biological sources: Congenital, hereditary, infectious, inflammatory, metabolic, nutritional, tumors, vascular.
- Environmental sources: Allergens, chemical exposures, infectious organisms, nutrition, physical agents, trauma.
- Social determinants: Neighborhood & built environment, economic stability, health and health care, education, social and community context.
- Health behaviors: Nutrition, physical activity, rest and relaxation, tobacco use, alcohol use, illicit substance use, immunizations.
Models of Disease Causation
- Multicausality: Etiology of all diseases is multifactorial
- The Causal Pie Model
- Epidemiological Triad or Triangle (Agent, Host, Environment)
- BEINGS Model (Biological, Behavioral, Environmental, Immunological, Nutritional, Genetic, Services, Social, Spiritual)
- Web of Causation
Spectrum and Natural History of Disease
- Describes the severity of a disease, and variations from mild to fatal.
- Stages of disease: Susceptibility, preclinical, subclinical, clinical, recovery/disability/death.
Levels of Prevention
- Primary prevention: Protection in the stage of susceptibility, aimed at preventing exposure/disease.
- Secondary prevention: Early detection, used during preclinical and early stages to control disease.
- Tertiary prevention: Aimed at reducing long-term consequences of disease/disability.
Communicable Diseases: Chain of Infection
- Communicability: The ability of a disease to be transmitted from one person to another or to spread through a population
- Reservoir
- Portal of exit
- Transmission: Direct, indirect (vehicleborne, vectorborne), airborne
- Portal of entry
- Susceptible host
Host-Related Control and Prevention
- Isolation
- Quarantine
- Herd immunity
- Cocooning
Health Screening
- Used to identify diseases in early stages, when treatment is most effective.
- Screening as a form of secondary prevention.
Characteristics of Screening Tests
- Sensitivity
- Specificity
- Positive predictive value
- Negative predictive value
Investigation of an Outbreak - Terminology
- Cases: Primary, secondary, suspect, confirmed.
- Epidemiological Investigation steps: Establish criteria, count cases, examine data, classify, analyze.
Epidemiology Study Designs
- Experimental: Randomized controlled trials, non-randomized trials
- Observational: Cohort studies, case-control studies, cross-sectional studies.
- Levels of evidence: Systematic reviews, Randomized controlled trials, observational studies, case reports, expert opinion.
- Prospective vs Retrospective Cohort studies.
- Case-control studies.
- Cross-sectional studies.
Risk
- Risk: Probability that an event will occur
- Absolute risk
- Attributable risk
- Relative risk
- Odds ratio
- Confidence intervals for risk and odds ratios.
Measures of Association
- Risk ratio or relative risk (RR)
- Odds ratio (OR)
Public Health Surveillance
- Ongoing, systematic collection, analysis, and interpretation of health-related data.
- Use the data for planning and controlling disease.
- Measures/occurrence of disease: Counts, frequencies, proportions, percentages, rates (incidence , mortality)
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Description
This quiz assesses your understanding of the fundamental concepts of epidemiology, including its core functions and the importance of data in public health. You'll explore key elements such as the 5 W's of epidemiology, as well as descriptive and analytic methodologies. Test your knowledge on how epidemiology helps in controlling health problems in communities.
