105 Questions
What is the primary focus of human development?
The systematic study of processes of change and stability throughout the life span
Which of the following is NOT a goal of human development?
Envision
During which developmental period is physical growth the most rapid?
Prenatal Period
At what age range does early childhood occur?
Age 3 to 6
Which domain of development involves learning and memory abilities?
Cognitive development
Which of the following describes late adulthood from age 75 to 84?
Old -old
What occurs in psychosocial development during infancy and toddlerhood?
Attachments to parents and others are formed
In which period do fine and gross motor skills and strength improve?
Early Childhood
Which of the following generations were born between 1965 and 1980?
Generation X
What developmental change is described as the use of symbols and problem-solving abilities developing by the end of the second year?
Cognitive development in infancy and toddlerhood
Match the developmental period with the key developmental milestone:
Neonate (birth to 1 month) = Rapid growth and development of basic motor skills and reflexes Preoperational period (2 to 7 years) = Use symbols and language to represent thoughts Late middle age (50 to 65 years) = Physical and psychological changes continue, retirement may occur Fetus (9 weeks to birth) = Rapid growth and development of body systems
Match the domain of development with its focus:
Physical development = Changes in the body's size, shape, and appearance Cognitive development = Changes in a person's ability to think, learn, and solve problems Social development = Changes in a person's ability to interact with others and form relationships Emotional development = Changes in a person's ability to express and manage emotions
Match the stage of cognitive development with its characteristics:
Sensorimotor period (birth to 2 years) = Learning through senses and motor skills Concrete operational period (7 to 11 years) = Logical thinking about concrete events Formal operational period (11 years and up) = Ability to think abstractly Preoperational period (2 to 7 years) = Use of symbols and language, but egocentric thinking
Match the physical development period with its key characteristic:
Early childhood (2 to 6 years) = Increased mobility and independence, beginning of language development Middle childhood (6 to 11 years) = Continued growth and development of motor skills, language, and cognitive abilities Adolescence (12 to 18 years) = Rapid physical growth and onset of puberty Young adulthood (22 to 40 years) = Completion of physical growth and young adulthood begins
Match the emotional development stage with its predominant trait:
Infancy (birth to 2 years) = Express emotions primarily through crying and smiling Early childhood (2 to 6 years) = Express emotions more verbally and better control Middle childhood (6 to 11 years) = Understand and empathize with others Adolescence (12 to 18 years) = Experience a wide range of emotions due to hormonal changes
Match the given age range with the corresponding development period:
Prenatal period = Conception to birth Infancy = Birth to 2 years Early childhood = 2 to 6 years Middle childhood = 6 to 11 years
Match the social development period with its focus activity:
Attachment (birth to 2 years) = Form strong bonds with primary caregivers Socialization (2 to 6 years) = Learn social norms and expectations Peer relationships (6 to 12 years) = Form friendships and learn to interact with others Adolescence (12 to 18 years) = Explore own identities and become more independent
Match the characteristic with the developmental period it mostly occurs:
Young-old (65 to 74 years) = Relatively healthy and active, many continue to work or volunteer Old-old (75 to 84 years) = Increasing frailty and health problems, many need assistance with daily activities Early middle age (40 to 49 years) = Physical and psychological changes begin to accelerate Late adolescence (18 to 21 years) = Completion of physical growth and development, young adulthood begins
Match the cognitive development stage with its specific trait:
Preoperational period (2 to 7 years) = Egocentric and unable to think logically Concrete operational period (7 to 11 years) = Able to think about things in a concrete way Formal operational period (11 years and up) = Think abstractly and reason about hypothetical situations Sensorimotor period (birth to 2 years) = Learn about the world through senses and motor skills
Match the description with the correct period of life span:
Toddlerhood (2 to 3 years) = Increased mobility and independence, beginning of language development Middle adolescence (15 to 17 years) = Continued physical growth and increasing independence Middle adulthood (26 to 40 years) = Career and family responsibilities take center stage Early adulthood (22 to 25 years) = Young adulthood in its prime
At what stage does physical growth peak and then slightly decline?
Young adulthood
What development occurs in middle childhood's psychosocial development?
Self-concept becomes more complex affecting self-esteem
Which of the following is a characteristic of cognitive development in adolescence?
Ability to think abstractly develops.
When do memory and language skills see significant improvement?
Middle childhood
Which aspect is central to adolescence psychosocial development?
Search for identity, including sexual identity.
What typically begins to decline during middle adulthood?
Physical condition
What characterizes psychosocial development in young adulthood?
Intimate relationships and personal lifestyle are established.
Which development is seen in early childhood's psychosocial development?
Self-esteem becomes global.
What takes place during middle childhood's cognitive development?
Egocentrism diminishes.
Which stage involves the launching of children causing an empty nest?
Middle adulthood
Match the following aspects of Early Childhood - Psychosocial Development with their descriptions:
Self-concept and understanding of emotions = Become more complex; self-esteem is global Independence, initiative, and self-control = Increase Gender identity = Develops Play = Becomes more imaginative, elaborate, and usually more social
Match the following aspects of Middle Childhood - Physical Development with their descriptions:
Growth = Slows Strength and athletic skills = Improve Respiratory illnesses = Are common General health = Is better than at any other time in the lifespan
Match the following aspects of Middle Childhood - Cognitive Development with their descriptions:
Egocentrism = Diminishes Logical thinking = Begins, but is concrete Memory and language skills = Increase Formal schooling benefits = Cognitive gains permit
Match the following aspects of Middle Childhood - Psychosocial Development with their descriptions:
Self-concept and self-esteem = Become more complex Coregulation = Reflects gradual shift in control from parents to child Peers = Assure central importance Special educational needs and strengths = Some children show
Match the following aspects of Adolescence - Physical Development with their descriptions:
Physical growth = Is rapid and profound Reproductive maturity = Occurs Behavioral issues = Cause major health risks Eating disorders and drug abuse = Examples of health risks
Match the following aspects of Adolescence - Cognitive Development with their descriptions:
Abstract thinking and scientific reasoning = Develop Immature thinking = Persists in attitudes and behaviors Education = Focuses on preparation for college or vocation Sexual identity = Search for identity becomes central
Match the following aspects of Young Adulthood - Physical Development with their descriptions:
Physical condition = Peaks, then declines slightly Lifestyle choices = Influence health Moral judgments = Become more complex in thought Educational and occupational choices = Are made, sometimes after exploration
Match the following aspects of Middle Adulthood - Physical Development with their descriptions:
Sensory abilities, health, stamina, and strength = Begin to deteriorate slowly Women = Experience menopause Mental abilities = Peak; expertise and practical problem-solving skills are high Creative output = May decline but improve in quality
Match the following aspects of Middle Adulthood - Psychosocial Development with their descriptions:
Sense of identity = Continues to develop; middle transition may occur Dual responsibilities = Caring for children and parents may cause stress Launching of children = Leaves empty nest Career success and burnout = For some, success and earning power peak; for others, burnout or career change may occur
Match the following aspects of Late Adulthood - Physical Development with their descriptions:
Health and physical abilities = Generally decline although most people are healthy and active Sense of identity = Continues to develop Dual responsibilities = Caring for children and parents may cause stress Launching of children = Leaves empty nest
Which concept refers to the totality of nonhereditary, or experiential, influences on development?
Environment
What is guided by the pleasure principle according to Freud's structure of the mind?
Id
Which type of family structure includes multiple generations living together?
Extended family
What term describes characteristics or traits inherited from biological parents?
Heredity
Which area of the mind contains repressed feelings, thoughts, and memories?
Unconscious
How does socioeconomic status (SES) influence an individual's context of development?
It combines economic and social factors like income, education, and occupation.
What is the primary focus of Freud's psychosexual development theory?
Biological maturation and inner forces
Which term refers to a society's total way of life, including customs and traditions?
Culture
Which concept describes the unfolding of a natural sequence of physical and behavioral changes?
Maturation
What does the superego represent in Freud's structure of the mind?
Moral principle and indoctrinated values
Match the stage of functioning with its description:
Slaying of the dragon = People must defeat some aspects of their upbringing in order to compensate. Restitution = Individuals begin to understand the limitations of their options for us people and may offer new options for their own children. Second adolescence = The generation gap is bridged by a cohort that may offer new solutions to old problems. Extended middle age = People in this stage try to conserve what they have and may attempt to pass on values, language, and skills to the next generation.
Match the domain of development with its focus:
Physical and Motor Development = The growth of the body and its structures, including changes in size, shape, and motor skills, and the development of perceptual capacities. Cognitive Development = Changes in an individual’s thought processes, including the way they learn, remember, solve problems, and use language. Psychosocial Development = Changes in an individual’s emotions, personality, and social relationships. Second adolescence = The generation gap is bridged by a cohort that may offer new solutions to old problems.
Match the developmental theory with its description:
Psychoanalytic Theories = The development of an individual is mostly the result of unconscious forces operating within three parts of the mind. Learning Theories = State that people’s behavior is shaped by interactions with their environment through rewards and punishments. Cognitive-Developmental Theories = Focus on how people’s thinking changes as they grow older. Humanistic Theories = Focus on the unique potential of each individual and the importance of free will.
Match the aspect of Freud's structure of the mind with its description:
Id = The impulsive, pleasure-seeking part of the mind present at birth. Ego = The rational part of the mind that seeks to balance the id’s desires with reality. Superego = The moral part of the mind that reflects societal values and standards of behavior. Physical and Motor Development = The growth of the body and its structures, including changes in size, shape, and motor skills, and the development of perceptual capacities.
Match the component of Learning Theories with its description:
Classical Conditioning = A neutral stimulus is paired with a meaningful stimulus, so that the neutral stimulus eventually elicits the same response as the meaningful stimulus. Operant Conditioning = A behavior is reinforced when followed by a positive consequence or punished when followed by a negative consequence. Social Learning Theory = Learning that occurs through observing the behavior of others and the consequences of that behavior. Restitution = Individuals begin to understand the limitations of their options for us people and may offer new options for their own children.
Match the aspect of Cognitive-Developmental Theories with its description:
Piaget’s Theory = Focuses in on how children develop more sophisticated ways of thinking as they mature through a series of qualitatively different stages. Vygotsky’s Theory = Emphasizes the social context of cognitive development. Integrity vs. Despair = Intimacy with others and a sense of purpose in life assist people in this stage in accepting death. Ego = The rational part of the mind that seeks to balance the id’s desires with reality.
Match the factor influencing development with its description:
Heredity = Traits or characteristics that are inborn, determined by one’s genetic makeup. Environment = All of the external conditions and experiences that affect the development of an individual. Maturation = The unfolding of a natural sequence of physical and behavioral changes. Superego = The moral part of the mind that reflects societal values and standards of behavior.
Match the context of development with its example:
Normative age-graded influences = Characteristics of an event that occurs in a similar way for most people in a group. Normative history-graded influences = Significant environmental events that shape the behavior and attitudes of an age cohort. Non-normative influences = Atypical events that occur in a person's life at a time when such events do not usually happen. Physical and Motor Development = The growth of the body and its structures, including changes in size, shape, and motor skills, and the development of perceptual capacities.
Match the concept with its definition:
Classical Conditioning = A neutral stimulus is paired with a meaningful stimulus, so that the neutral stimulus eventually elicits the same response as the meaningful stimulus. Operant Conditioning = A behavior is reinforced when followed by a positive consequence or punished when followed by a negative consequence. Social Learning Theory = Learning that occurs through observing the behavior of others and the consequences of that behavior. Nature = Inherited traits or characteristics.
Match the aspect of Humanistic Theories with its description:
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs = States that people are motivated by a hierarchy of needs, starting with basic survival needs and moving up to more complex needs such as belonging, esteem, and self-actualization. Rogers’ Self Theory = States that each person is motivated to self-actualize, or become a fully functioning person. Restitution = Individuals begin to understand the limitations of their options for us people and may offer new options for their own children. Operant Conditioning = A behavior is reinforced when followed by a positive consequence or punished when followed by a negative consequence.
Which phase of Freud's psychosexual development is characterized by a child's sensual gratification from withholding and expelling feces?
Anal phase
At what age does Erikson's stage of Trust vs. Mistrust typically occur?
Birth to 1.5 years
Erikson's stage of Industry vs. Inferiority occurs at which developmental period?
School Age
What characteristic is associated with Freud's oral phase?
Mouth-oriented activities
Which of Erikson's stages involves developing a sense of purpose by trying out new activities?
Initiative vs. Guilt
The main source of pleasure in the oral phase involves mouth-oriented activities.
True
In Freud's psychosexual development theory, the latency period involves the emergence of sexual impulses.
False
An individual with an anal retentive character is described as stingy and overly neat.
True
Erik Erikson's theory includes the concept of epigenesis, which involves the unfolding of stages.
True
The phallic phase is where a child identifies with the parent of the opposite sex.
True
Which virtue is associated with the crisis of Intimacy vs. Isolation?
Love
During which developmental stage does a person focus on establishing and guiding the next generation?
Middle Adulthood
In Piaget's theory, which stage involves the ability to think abstractly and deal with hypothetical situations?
Formal Operational Stage
What is the primary characteristic of the Sensorimotor Stage according to Piaget?
Organization of activities in relation to the environment through sensory and motor activity
Which chemical bases pair together in DNA?
Adenine and Thymine, Cytosine and Guanine
What determines a child's sex according to the content?
The combination of sex chromosomes during fertilization
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of the Preoperational Stage?
Logical thinking
The crisis of Integrity vs. Despair occurs during which stage of life?
Old Age
Who is known as the father of genetics?
Gregor Mendel
What term describes twins that develop from the division of one zygote?
Monozygotic twins
Match the following developmental stages with their crisis:
Young Adulthood = Intimacy vs. Isolation Adulthood = Generativity vs. Stagnation Old Age = Integrity vs. Despair Infancy = Trust vs. Mistrust
Match the following cognitive stages with their corresponding features:
Sensorimotor Stage = Organize activities through sensory and motor activity Preoperational Stage = Uses symbols to represent people, places, and events Concrete Operational Stage = Solves problems logically focused on here and now Formal Operational Stage = Thinks abstractly and deals with hypothetical situations
Match the following genetic terms with their descriptions:
Genes = Basic units of heredity Allele = Different forms of a gene expression DNA = Chemical that carries inherited instructions Chromosomes = Bundles of genes
Match the following terms with their corresponding definitions about life formation:
Fertilization/Conception = Union of sperm and ovum to produce a zygote Zygote = One-celled organism resulting from fertilization Gametes = Sex cells Monozygotic twins = Twins from the division of one zygote
Match the following virtues with their corresponding developmental stage:
Young Adulthood = Love Adulthood = Care Old Age = Wisdom Infancy = Hope
What type of study compares the behavioral similarity of identical and fraternal twins?
Twin studies
Which concept describes how a person can achieve the potential expression of a hereditary trait?
Reaction Range
Which correlation involves an environment created by the biological parents for the child?
Passive Correlations
In which type of study are environmental influences separated from genetic influences?
Adoption studies
What is the term for the statistical estimate of the contribution of heredity to individual differences in a specific trait?
Heritability
Which phenomenon involves the effect of similar environmental conditions on genetically different individuals?
Genotype-Environment Interaction
What is the term for when a child seeks an environment compatible with their genotype?
Active Correlation
Which example best illustrates the concept of canalization?
A child walks earlier when trained to walk compared to one who was not trained.
Which correlation is indicated if a non-musical parent enrolls their musically inclined child in music lessons?
Reactive/Evocative Correlations
Which study method investigates similarities between adopted children and their adoptive versus biological parents?
Adoption studies
Match the type of genetic study with its description:
Family studies = Investigates the correlation of traits within families to determine hereditary influence. Adoption studies = Examines if adopted children's traits are more similar to their biological or adopted parents. Twin studies = Compares the behavioral similarity between identical and fraternal twins. Environmental studies = Analyzes the impact of different environments on genetically similar individuals.
Match the concept with its description:
Heritability = Statistical estimate of the contribution of heredity to individual differences in a specific trait. Reaction Range = Potential expression of a hereditary trait that is dependent on environmental opportunities and constraints. Canalization = Development along genetically determined channels, altered by extreme environmental changes. Genotype-Environment Interaction = Effect of similar environmental conditions on genetically different individuals.
Match the examples with the type of study or concept:
Obesity within a family = Family studies Adopted child's traits compared to biological parents = Adoption studies Behavioral similarity of identical twins = Twin studies Variability in allergic reactions to pollen = Genotype-Environment Interaction
Match the type of Genotype-Environment Correlation to its example:
Passive Correlations = A music-loving parent creates a musically rich environment for the child. Reactive/Evocative Correlations = A non-musically inclined parent enrolls a child in a music academy due to the child's musical talent. Active Correlation = An individual with a musical genotype seeks out music lover friends. General Correlation = A child with athletic parents chooses athletic activities.
Match the concept with its example:
Reaction Range = Body size being determined by genetics but influenced by diet and exercise. Canalization = A child developing communication skills more quickly if encouraged to speak. Genotype-Environment Correlation = A musically gifted child being placed in a music school. Genotype-Environment Interaction = Only some children developing allergies despite similar exposure to allergens.
Match the Genotype-Environment Correlation subtype with its description:
Passive Correlations = Environment created by biological parents similar to the child's genetic traits without their control. Reactive/Evocative Correlations = Environment created reactively in response to the child’s shown traits. Active Correlation = Environment actively chosen by individuals to fit their genotypes. General Correlation = Any correlation between the environment and genotype.
Match the principle with its definition:
Heritability = Contribution of genes to differences in a trait within a population. Reaction Range = Range of potential expressions of a genetic trait. Canalization = Narrow developmental path largely restricted by genetic factors. Genotype-Environment Interaction = Different reactions to the same environmental conditions based on genetic differences.
Match the study type with how it informs about nature and nurture:
Family studies = Analyze similarity among family members to infer genetic influence. Adoption studies = Separate genetic influence from environmental influence by comparing adopted and biological traits. Twin studies = Compare traits of identical vs. fraternal twins to assess the role of genes. Environmental studies = Assess the impact of environment over genes.
Match the behavioral genetic principle to its example:
Reaction Range = Height potential limited by genetics, influenced by nutrition. Canalization = Early walking development adjusted by parental encouragement. Genotype-Environment Interaction = Variability in antisocial behavior due to childhood maltreatment in certain genotypes. Genotype-Environment Correlation = Parents' love for music leading to a child's similar interest.
Match the type of correlation with its characteristic:
Passive Correlations = Child's environment is naturally aligned with their genetic make-up by parents. Reactive/Evocative Correlations = Parents adjust the environment to support emerging traits in the child. Active Correlation = Individuals seek out environments that fit their genetic predispositions. Interactive Correlation = Environment and genotype influence each other over time.
Study Notes
Introduction to Developmental Psychology
- Human Development is the systematic study of processes of change and stability throughout the life span, aiming to deal with internal and external conditions of existence.
Goals of Human Development
- Describe human behaviors
- Explain why humans behave in certain ways
- Predict human behavior
- Intervene to influence human behavior as psychologists
Domains of Development
- Physical development
- Cognitive development
- Psychosocial development
Periods of Life Span
- Prenatal Period: Conception to birth
- Infancy and Toddlerhood: Birth to age 3
- Early Childhood: Age 3 to 6
- Middle Childhood: Age 6 to 11
- Adolescence: Age 11 to 20
- Young Adulthood: Age 20 to 40
- Middle Adulthood: Age 40 to 65
- Late Adulthood: Age 65 and over, subdivided into:
- Young Old: 65 to 74
- Old-Old: 75 to 84
- Oldest-Old: 85 to 99
- Centenarians: 100+ years old
Prenatal Period
- Physical development: rapid growth, body structures and organs form, brain growth spurt begins, and vulnerability to environmental influence is great
- Cognitive development: abilities to learn, remember, and respond to sensory stimuli develop
- Psychosocial development: fetus responds to mother's voice and develops a preference for it
Infancy and Toddlerhood
- Physical development: all senses and body systems operate at birth, brain grows in complexity, physical growth and motor skills development are rapid
- Cognitive development: abilities to learn, remember, use symbols, and solve problems develop
- Psychosocial development: attachments to parents and others are formed, self-awareness develops, shift from dependence toward autonomy occurs, and interest in other children increases
Early Childhood
- Physical development: growth is steady, appearance becomes more slender and proportions more adultlike, appetite diminishes, and sleep problems are common
- Cognitive development: thinking is somewhat egocentric, but understanding of other people's perspective grows, cognitive immaturity results in some illogical ideas about the world
- Psychosocial development: not mentioned explicitly, but implied to continue from infancy and toddlerhood
Generations
- Silent Generation: 1928-1945
- Baby Boomers: 1946-1964
- Generation X: 1965-1980
- Millennials: 1981-1996
Developmental Psychology
- Development refers to the systematic study of processes of change and stability throughout the life span.
- Life-span perspective emphasizes the study of human development from conception to death, including all physical, cognitive, social, and emotional changes.
Physical Development
- Prenatal period: conception to birth, with embryo (2-8 weeks) and fetus (9 weeks to birth) stages.
- Infancy: birth to 2 years, with neonate (birth to 1 month) and infancy (1 month to 1 year) stages.
- Early childhood: 2 to 6 years, with toddlerhood (2-3 years) and preschool (3-6 years) stages.
- Middle childhood: 6 to 11 years, with early school age (6-8 years) and late school age (9-11 years) stages.
- Adolescence: 12 to 18 years, with early adolescence (12-14 years), middle adolescence (15-17 years), and late adolescence (18-21 years) stages.
- Young adulthood: 22 to 40 years, with early adulthood (22-25 years) and middle adulthood (26-40 years) stages.
- Middle age: 40 to 65 years, with early middle age (40-49 years) and late middle age (50-65 years) stages.
- Late adulthood: 65+ years, with young-old (65-74 years), old-old (75-84 years), and centenarians (85+ years) stages.
Cognitive Development
- Sensorimotor period: birth to 2 years, infants learn through senses and motor skills.
- Preoperational period: 2 to 7 years, children use symbols and language, but are egocentric and unable to think logically.
- Concrete operational period: 7 to 11 years, children become logical and think concretely, but not abstractly.
- Formal operational period: 11 years and up, adolescents and adults develop abstract thinking and reasoning.
Social Development
- Attachment: birth to 2 years, infants form strong bonds with caregivers.
- Socialization: 2 to 6 years, children learn social norms and expectations.
- Peer relationships: 6 to 12 years, children form friendships and learn social skills.
- Adolescence: 12 to 18 years, adolescents become independent and explore identities.
- Young adulthood: 22 to 40 years, young adults establish careers and families.
- Middle age: 40 to 65 years, middle-aged adults focus on careers and families.
- Late adulthood: 65+ years, older adults retire and spend time with family and friends.
Emotional Development
- Infancy: birth to 2 years, infants express emotions through crying and smiling.
- Early childhood: 2 to 6 years, children express emotions verbally and control emotions better.
- Middle childhood: 6 to 11 years, children develop a wider range of emotions and empathize with others.
- Adolescence: 12 to 18 years, adolescents experience a wide range of emotions due to hormonal changes and challenges.
- Young adulthood: 22 to 40 years, young adults experience a range of emotions, but may control them better than adolescents.
- Middle age: 40 to 65 years, middle-aged adults experience a range of emotions, including sadness, joy, anger, and fear.
- Late adulthood: 65+ years, older adults may experience a range of emotions, but more likely to experience positive emotions.
Early Childhood - Psychosocial Development
- Self-concept and understanding of emotions become more complex and global, influencing self-esteem.
- Independence, initiative, and self-control increase.
- Gender identity develops.
- Play becomes more imaginative, elaborate, and social.
- Altruism, aggression, and fearfulness are common in children.
- Family remains the focus of social life, but other children become more important.
Middle Childhood - Physical Development
- Growth slows down.
- Strength and athletic skills improve.
- Respiratory illnesses are common, but overall health is better than at any other time in life.
Middle Childhood - Cognitive Development
- Egocentrism diminishes, and children start thinking logically but concretely.
- Memory and language skills increase.
- Cognitive gains enable children to benefit from formal schooling.
- Some children show special educational needs and strengths.
Middle Childhood - Psychosocial Development
- Self-concept becomes more complex, affecting self-esteem.
- Coregulation reflects a gradual shift in control from parents to child.
- Peers assume central importance.
Adolescence - Physical Development
- Physical growth and changes are rapid and profound.
- Reproductive maturity occurs.
- Major health risks arise from behavioral issues, such as eating disorders and drug abuse.
Adolescence - Cognitive Development
- Ability to think abstractly and use scientific reasoning develops.
- Immature thinking persists in some attitudes and behaviors.
- Education focuses on preparation for college or vocation.
Adolescence - Psychosocial Development
- Search for identity, including sexual identity, becomes central.
- Relationships with parents are generally good.
- Peer group may exert a positive or negative influence.
Young Adulthood - Physical Development
- Physical condition peaks, then declines slightly.
- Lifestyle choices influence health.
Young Adulthood - Cognitive Development
- Thought and moral judgments become more complex.
- Educational and occupational choices are made, sometimes after a period of exploration.
Young Adulthood - Psychosocial Development
- Personality traits and styles become relatively stable, but changes in personality may be influenced by life stages and events.
- Intimate relationships and personal lifestyle are established but may not be lasting.
- Most people marry, and most become parents.
Middle Adulthood - Physical Development
- Slow deterioration of sensory abilities, health, stamina, and strength may begin, but individual differences are wide.
- Women experience menopause.
Middle Adulthood - Cognitive Development
- Mental abilities peak; expertise and practical problem-solving skills are high.
- Creative output may decline but improve in quality.
- For some, career success and earning power peak; for others, burnout or career change may occur.
Middle Adulthood - Psychosocial Development
- Sense of identity continues to develop; middle transition may occur.
- Dual responsibilities of caring for children and parents may cause stress.
- Launching of children leaves an empty nest.
Late Adulthood - Physical Development
- Most people are healthy and active, although physical abilities generally decline.
Early Childhood - Psychosocial Development
- Self-concept and emotional understanding become more complex, with global self-esteem
- Independence, initiative, and self-control increase
- Gender identity develops
- Play becomes more imaginative, elaborate, and social
- Altruism, aggression, and fearfulness are common emotional expressions
- Family remains the primary social focus, with peers gaining importance
Middle Childhood - Physical Development
- Growth rate slows down
- Strength and athletic skills improve
- Respiratory illnesses are common, but overall health is generally better than at any other life stage
Middle Childhood - Cognitive Development
- Egocentrism decreases
- Logical, concrete thinking emerges
- Memory and language skills increase
- Cognitive gains enable children to benefit from formal education
- Some children exhibit special educational needs and strengths
Middle Childhood - Psychosocial Development
- Self-concept becomes more complex, impacting self-esteem
- Coregulation reflects a gradual shift from parental to child control
- Peers assume central importance in social life
Adolescence - Physical Development
- Rapid and profound physical growth and changes occur
- Reproductive maturity is achieved
- Major health risks arise from behavioral issues, such as eating disorders and drug abuse
Adolescence - Cognitive Development
- Ability to think abstractly and use scientific reasoning develops
- Immature thinking persists in some attitudes and behaviors
- Education focuses on preparation for college or vocational training
Adolescence - Psychosocial Development
- Search for identity, including sexual identity, becomes central
- Relationships with parents are generally positive
- Peer group may exert a positive or negative influence on behavior and identity
Young Adulthood - Physical Development
- Physical condition peaks, then slightly declines
- Lifestyle choices significantly influence health
Young Adulthood - Cognitive Development
- Thought and moral judgments become more complex
- Educational and occupational choices are made, often after a period of exploration
Young Adulthood - Psychosocial Development
- Personality traits and styles become relatively stable, but may change due to life stages and events
- Intimate relationships and personal lifestyle are established, but may not be permanent
- Most people marry, and most become parents
Middle Adulthood - Physical Development
- Slow deterioration of sensory abilities, health, stamina, and strength may begin, with wide individual differences
- Women experience menopause
Middle Adulthood - Cognitive Development
- Mental abilities peak; expertise and practical problem-solving skills are high
- Creative output may decline, but improve in quality
- Career success and earning power peak for some, while others experience burnout or career change
Middle Adulthood - Psychosocial Development
- Sense of identity continues to develop; middle transition may occur
- Dual responsibilities of caring for children and parents may cause stress
- Launching of children leaves an empty nest
Late Adulthood - Physical Development
- Most people remain healthy and active, although physical abilities gradually decline
Influences on Development
- Individual differences refer to variations in characteristics, influence, or developmental outcomes.
- Heredity involves inborn traits or characteristics inherited from biological parents.
- Environment consists of nonhereditary or experiential influences on development.
- Maturation is the unfolding of a natural sequence of physical and behavioral changes.
Developing Contexts
Family
- A nuclear family consists of two-generational kinship, economic, and household of one or two parents and their biological/adopted/step children.
- An extended family is a multi-generational kinship of parents, children, and relatives living together in an extended family household.
Socioeconomic Status (SES) and Neighborhood
- Socioeconomic status (SES) is a combination of economic and social factors describing an individual or family, including income, education, and occupation.
- Neighborhood refers to individuals around a person, especially non-relatives.
Culture and Race/Ethnicity
- Culture is a society's or group's total way of life, including customs, traditions, beliefs, values, language, and physical products --- all learned behavior, passed on from parents to children.
- An ethnic group is a group united by ancestry, race, religion, language, and/or national origins, which contribute to a sense of shared identity.
Developmental Theories
Psychosexual Development of Sigmund Freud
- According to Freud, psychosexual development is driven by inner forces, especially biological maturation.
Famous Theories related to Development
- Psychosexual development, levels of the mind, and structure of the personality are three famous theories related to development.
Levels of Consciousness
- Conscious refers to being fully aware and immediate.
- Preconscious is the area where unconscious information is easily brought about.
- Unconscious involves repressed feelings, thoughts, and memories.
Structure of the Mind
- Id is guided by the pleasure principle, existed since birth, is illogical, and has no morality.
- Ego is guided by the reality principle, existed since infancy, and operates the secondary process.
- Superego is guided by the moral principle, existed since the child was indoctrinated by moral values from the parent, and has no contact with reality since the desire is perfection.
5 Stages of Functioning
- The 5 stages of functioning include slaying of the dragon, restitution, second adolescence, extended middle age, and integrity vs. despair.
- Slaying of the dragon involves defeating aspects of one's upbringing to compensate for them.
- Restitution involves understanding the limitations of options for one's children and offering new options.
- Second adolescence bridges the generation gap by offering new solutions to old problems.
- Extended middle age involves conserving what one has and passing on values, language, and skills to the next generation.
- Integrity vs. despair involves accepting death with intimacy with others and a sense of purpose in life.
3 Domains of Development
- The 3 domains of development include physical and motor development, cognitive development, and psychosocial development.
- Physical and motor development involves growth of the body and its structures, including changes in size, shape, and motor skills, and development of perceptual capacities.
- Cognitive development involves changes in an individual's thought processes, including learning, remembering, solving problems, and using language.
- Psychosocial development involves changes in an individual's emotions, personality, and social relationships.
Nature vs. Nurture
- Heredity refers to traits or characteristics that are inborn, determined by one's genetic makeup.
- Environment refers to all external conditions and experiences that affect an individual's development.
Developmental Theories
- Psychoanalytic theories state that development is the result of unconscious forces operating within three parts of the mind: id, ego, and superego.
- Id is the impulsive, pleasure-seeking part of the mind present at birth.
- Ego is the rational part of the mind that seeks to balance the id's desires with reality.
- Superego is the moral part of the mind that reflects societal values and standards of behavior.
- Learning theories state that people's behavior is shaped by interactions with their environment through rewards and punishments.
- Classical conditioning involves pairing a neutral stimulus with a meaningful stimulus, so that the neutral stimulus eventually elicits the same response as the meaningful stimulus.
- Operant conditioning involves reinforcing a behavior when followed by a positive consequence or punishing it when followed by a negative consequence.
- Social learning theory involves learning through observing the behavior of others and the consequences of that behavior.
- Cognitive-developmental theories focus on how people's thinking changes as they grow older.
- Piaget's theory focuses on how children develop more sophisticated ways of thinking as they mature through a series of qualitatively different stages.
- Vygotsky's theory emphasizes the social context of cognitive development.
- Humanistic theories focus on the unique potential of each individual and the importance of free will.
- Maslow's hierarchy of needs states that people are motivated by a hierarchy of needs, starting with basic survival needs and moving up to more complex needs such as belonging, esteem, and self-actualization.
- Rogers' self theory states that each person is motivated to self-actualize, or become a fully functioning person.
Introduction to Developmental Psychology
Meaning of Developmental Changes
- Developmental psychology studies the systematic processes of change and stability throughout the life span.
- It is a systematic and adaptive study that aims to deal with internal and external conditions of existence.
4 Goals of Human Development
- Description: What are these behaviors?
- Explanation: Why do they behave such?
- Prediction: What will they do?
- Intervention: What should we do, as psychologists, to/for them?
Domains of Development
- Physical Development: changes in the body's size, shape, and appearance.
- Cognitive Development: changes in a person's ability to think, learn, and solve problems.
- Psychosocial Development: changes in a person's ability to interact with others and form relationships.
Periods of Life Span
- Prenatal Period: Conception to birth
- Infancy and Toddlerhood: Birth to age 3
- Early Childhood: Age 3 to 6
- Middle Childhood: Age 6 to 11
- Adolescence: Age 11 to 20
- Young Adulthood: Age 20 to 40
- Middle Adulthood: Age 40 to 65
- Late Adulthood: Age 65 and over
Prenatal Period
- Conception occurs by normal fertilization or other means.
- Genetic endowment and body structures and organs form.
- Physical growth is the most rapid in the life span.
- Vulnerability to environmental influence is great.
Infancy and Toddlerhood
- All senses and body systems operate at birth to varying degrees.
- The brain grows in complexity and is highly sensitive to environmental influences.
- Physical growth and development of motor skills are rapid.
- Use of symbols and ability to solve problems develop by end of the second year.
Early Childhood
- Growth is steady; appearance becomes more slender and proportions more adultlike.
- Appetite diminishes, and sleep problems are common.
- Handedness appears; fine and gross motor skills and strength improve.
Late Adulthood
- 65 to 74 years: Young Old
- 75 to 84 years: Old-old
- 85 to 99 years: Oldest-old
- 100+ years: Centenarians
Generations
- Silent Generation: 1928-1945
- Baby Boomers: 1946-1964
- Generation X: 1965-1980
- Millennials: 1981-1996
Developmental Theories
Psychosexual Development of Sigmund Freud
- Freud believed that the changes we experience in psychosexual development are due to inner forces, especially biological maturation.
- 5 stages of functioning:
- Slaying of the dragon: people must defeat some aspects of their upbringing in order to compensate.
- Restitution: Individuals begin to understand the limitations of their options for us people and may offer new options for their own children.
- Second adolescence: The generation gap is bridged by a cohort that may offer new solutions to old problems.
- Extended middle age: People in this stage try to conserve what they have and may attempt to pass on values, language, and skills to the next generation.
- Integrity vs. Despair: Intimacy with others and a sense of purpose in life assist people in this stage in accepting death.
3 Domains of Development
- Physical and Motor Development: growth of the body and its structures, including changes in size, shape, and motor skills, and the development of perceptual capacities.
- Cognitive Development: changes in an individual’s thought processes, including the way they learn, remember, solve problems, and use language.
- Psychosocial Development: changes in a person’s ability to interact with others and form relationships.### Psychosocial Development
- Refers to the changes in an individual's emotions, personality, and social relationships
- Involves the interaction between nature (heredity) and nurture (environment)
Nature vs. Nurture
- Heredity: Inborn traits or characteristics determined by an individual's genetic makeup
- Environment: External conditions and experiences that affect an individual's development
Developmental Theories
Psychoanalytic Theories
- Development is mostly the result of unconscious forces operating within the mind
- Id: The impulsive, pleasure-seeking part of the mind present at birth
- Ego: The rational part of the mind that balances the id's desires with reality
- Superego: The moral part of the mind that reflects societal values and standards of behavior
Learning Theories
- Behavior is shaped by interactions with the environment through rewards and punishments
- Classical Conditioning: Neutral stimulus is paired with a meaningful stimulus to elicit the same response
- Operant Conditioning: Behavior is reinforced or punished by its consequences
- Social Learning Theory: Learning occurs through observing others' behavior and its consequences
Cognitive-Developmental Theories
- Focus on how people's thinking changes as they grow older
- Piaget's Theory: Children develop more sophisticated ways of thinking through a series of qualitatively different stages
- Vygotsky's Theory: Emphasizes the social context of cognitive development
Humanistic Theories
- Focus on the unique potential of each individual and the importance of free will
- Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: People are motivated by a hierarchy of needs, from basic survival to self-actualization
- Rogers' Self Theory: Each person is motivated to self-actualize, or become a fully functioning person
Introduction to Developmental Psychology
- Developmental Psychology: the systematic study of processes of change and stability throughout the life span.
- Life-span perspective: emphasizes the study of human development from conception to death, including all the physical, cognitive, social, and emotional changes that occur throughout the life span.
4 Goals of Human Development
- Description: What are these behaviors?
- Explanation: Why do they behave such?
- Prediction: What will they do?
- Intervention: What should we do, as psychologists, to/for them?
Domains of Development
- Physical Development: refers to changes in the body's size, shape, and appearance.
- Cognitive Development: refers to changes in a person's ability to think, learn, and solve problems.
- Social Development: refers to changes in a person's ability to interact with others and form relationships.
- Emotional Development: refers to changes in a person's ability to express and manage emotions.
Periods of Life Span
- Prenatal Period: Conception to birth
- Infancy and Toddlerhood: Birth to age 3
- Early Childhood: Age 3 to 6
- Middle Childhood: Age 6 to 11
- Adolescence: Age 11 to 20
- Young Adulthood: Age 20 to 40
- Middle Adulthood: Age 40 to 65
- Late Adulthood: Age 65 and over
Prenatal Period Development
- Physical Development:
- Conception occurs by normal fertilization or other means.
- Genetic endowment.
- Body structures and organs form; brain growth spurt begins.
- Physical growth is the most rapid in the life span.
- Vulnerability to environmental influence is great.
- Cognitive Development:
- Abilities to learn and remember and to respond to sensory stimuli are developing.
- Psychosocial Development:
- Fetus responds to mother's voice and develops a preference for it.
Infancy and Toddlerhood Development
- Physical Development:
- All senses and body systems operate at birth to varying degrees.
- The brain grows in complexity and is highly sensitive to environmental influences.
- Physical growth and development of motor skills are rapid.
- Cognitive Development:
- Abilities to learn and remember are present.
- Use of symbols and ability to solve problems develop by end of the second year.
- Comprehension and use of language develop rapidly.
- Psychosocial Development:
- Attachments to parents and others are formed.
- Self-awareness develops.
- Shift from dependence toward autonomy occurs.
- Interest in other children increases.
Early Childhood Development
- Physical Development:
- Growth is steady; appearance becomes more slender and proportions more adultlike.
- Appetite diminishes, and sleep problems are common.
- Handedness appears; fine and gross motor skills and strength improve.
- Cognitive Development:
- Thinking is somewhat egocentric, but understanding of other people's perspective grows.
- Cognitive immaturity results in some illogical ideas about the world.
- Memory and language improve.
Late Adulthood
- Young Old: 65 to 74 years
- Old-Old: 75 to 84 years
- Oldest-Old: 85 to 99 years
- Centenarians: 100+ years old
Generations
- Silent Generation: 1928-1945
- Baby Boomers: 1946-1964
- Generation X: 1965-1980
- Millennials: 1981-1996### Psychosocial Development
- Refers to changes in an individual's emotions, personality, and social relationships
Nature vs. Nurture
- Heredity: Traits or characteristics determined by one's genetic makeup
- Environment: External conditions and experiences that affect individual development
Developmental Theories
Psychoanalytic Theories
- State that individual development is mostly the result of unconscious forces operating within three parts of the mind:
- Id: Impulsive, pleasure-seeking part present at birth
- Ego: Rational part that balances the id's desires with reality
- Superego: Moral part that reflects societal values and standards of behavior
Learning Theories
- State that people's behavior is shaped by interactions with their environment through rewards and punishments
- Classical Conditioning: Neutral stimulus paired with a meaningful stimulus to elicit the same response
- Operant Conditioning: Behavior is reinforced or punished by positive or negative consequences
- Social Learning Theory: Learning occurs through observing others' behavior and its consequences
Cognitive-Developmental Theories
- Focus on how people's thinking changes as they grow older
- Piaget's Theory: Children develop more sophisticated ways of thinking through a series of qualitatively different stages
- Vygotsky's Theory: Emphasizes the social context of cognitive development
Humanistic Theories
- Focus on the unique potential of each individual and the importance of free will
- Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: People are motivated by a hierarchy of needs, from basic survival to self-actualization
- Rogers' Self Theory: Each person is motivated to self-actualize, or become a fully functioning person
Developmental Stages
- Young Adulthood and Middle Adulthood crisis: Intimacy vs. Isolation, with the virtue of Love, where individuals seek to make commitments to others, otherwise, they may suffer from isolation and self-absorption.
- Adulthood crisis: Generativity vs. Stagnation, with the virtue of Care, where mature adults focus on establishing and guiding the next generation, or else feel personal impoverishment.
- Old Age crisis: Integrity vs. Despair, with the virtue of Wisdom, where older adults achieve acceptance of their life, allowing acceptance of death, or else despairs over the inability to relive life.
Cognitive Stages (Jean Piaget)
- Sensorimotor Stage (birth to 2 years): Infants gradually organize activities in relation to the environment through sensory and motor activity.
- Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years): Children develop a representational system, using symbols to represent people, places, and events, with language and imaginative play being important manifestations, but thinking is still not logical.
- Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 years): Children can solve problems logically if focused on the present, but cannot think abstractly.
- Formal Operations (11 years through adulthood): Individuals can think abstractly, deal with hypothetical situations, and think about possibilities.
Life Formation
- Fertilization/Conception: The union of sperm and ovum produces a zygote.
- Gametes: Sex cells, with women typically having 2 million immature sex cells, which mature every 28 days.
- Zygote: A one-celled organism resulting from fertilization.
- Multiple Births:
- Monozygotic twins: Twins from the division of one zygote, having identical genes, also known as identical twins.
- Dizygotic twins: Twins from two zygotes, being genetically different, also known as fraternal twins.
Mechanisms of Heredity
- Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): The chemical that carries inherited instructions for the development of all cellular forms of life.
- Chemical units (Bases):
- Thymine paired with Adenine
- Guanine paired with Cytosine
- There are approximately 3 billion pairs per DNA molecule.
- Genetic Code: The sequence of bases within the DNA molecule that governs the formation of proteins, determining the structure and functions of living cells.
- Chromosomes: Bundles of genes, with all cells in the body except gametes having 23 pairs, with 23 from the father and 23 from the mother forming the pairs.
- Sex Determiner:
- Autosomes: 22 pairs of chromosomes not related to sexual expression.
- Sex Chromosome: The 23rd chromosome that determines sex, with the ovum carrying an X sex chromosome and the sperm carrying either an X or Y sex chromosome.
- During fertilization, if X chromosome is paired with another X, then XX (female) is formed, otherwise, if X is paired with Y, then XY (male) is formed.
- Patterns of Genetic Transmission:
- Gregor Mendel: The father of genetics who discovered dominant and recessive inheritance.
- Allele: The expression of a characteristic of a gene.
Developmental Stages
- Young Adulthood and Middle Adulthood crisis: Intimacy vs. Isolation, with the virtue of Love, where individuals seek to make commitments to others, otherwise, they may suffer from isolation and self-absorption.
- Adulthood crisis: Generativity vs. Stagnation, with the virtue of Care, where mature adults focus on establishing and guiding the next generation, or else feel personal impoverishment.
- Old Age crisis: Integrity vs. Despair, with the virtue of Wisdom, where older adults achieve acceptance of their life, allowing acceptance of death, or else despairs over the inability to relive life.
Cognitive Stages (Jean Piaget)
- Sensorimotor Stage (birth to 2 years): Infants gradually organize activities in relation to the environment through sensory and motor activity.
- Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years): Children develop a representational system, using symbols to represent people, places, and events, with language and imaginative play being important manifestations, but thinking is still not logical.
- Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 years): Children can solve problems logically if focused on the present, but cannot think abstractly.
- Formal Operations (11 years through adulthood): Individuals can think abstractly, deal with hypothetical situations, and think about possibilities.
Life Formation
- Fertilization/Conception: The union of sperm and ovum produces a zygote.
- Gametes: Sex cells, with women typically having 2 million immature sex cells, which mature every 28 days.
- Zygote: A one-celled organism resulting from fertilization.
- Multiple Births:
- Monozygotic twins: Twins from the division of one zygote, having identical genes, also known as identical twins.
- Dizygotic twins: Twins from two zygotes, being genetically different, also known as fraternal twins.
Mechanisms of Heredity
- Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): The chemical that carries inherited instructions for the development of all cellular forms of life.
- Chemical units (Bases):
- Thymine paired with Adenine
- Guanine paired with Cytosine
- There are approximately 3 billion pairs per DNA molecule.
- Genetic Code: The sequence of bases within the DNA molecule that governs the formation of proteins, determining the structure and functions of living cells.
- Chromosomes: Bundles of genes, with all cells in the body except gametes having 23 pairs, with 23 from the father and 23 from the mother forming the pairs.
- Sex Determiner:
- Autosomes: 22 pairs of chromosomes not related to sexual expression.
- Sex Chromosome: The 23rd chromosome that determines sex, with the ovum carrying an X sex chromosome and the sperm carrying either an X or Y sex chromosome.
- During fertilization, if X chromosome is paired with another X, then XX (female) is formed, otherwise, if X is paired with Y, then XY (male) is formed.
- Patterns of Genetic Transmission:
- Gregor Mendel: The father of genetics who discovered dominant and recessive inheritance.
- Allele: The expression of a characteristic of a gene.
Behavioral Genetics
- Studies the relative influence of heredity and environment on behavior, aiming to understand individual differences in traits.
- Heritability: a statistical estimate of heredity's contribution to individual differences in a specific trait within a population, ranging from 0.0 to 1.0.
Methods of Study
- Family Studies: examines correlation of traits within families to infer hereditary influence (e.g., obesity in families).
- Adoption Studies: separates environmental from genetic influence by investigating similarities between adopted children and their biological/adoptive parents.
- Twin Studies: compares behavioral similarity of identical and fraternal twins.
Interplay of Genetics and Environment
- Reaction Range: the potential expression of a hereditary trait, influenced by environmental opportunities and constraints (e.g., body size, height).
- Canalization: certain behaviors develop along genetically predetermined channels, but can be altered by extreme environmental changes (e.g., early walking, communication skills).
- Genotype-Environment Interaction: similar environmental conditions affect genetically different individuals differently (e.g., allergic reactions to pollen, antisocial personality development).
- Genotype-Environment Correlation: genetic and environmental influences align in the same direction.
3 Ways of Correlation
- Passive Correlations: environment created by biological parents with the same trait (e.g., music-loving parents create a music-rich environment).
- Reactive/Evocative Correlations: environment created by parents in response to early signs of dispositions (e.g., enrolling a music-inclined child in music academy).
- Active Correlation: individuals seek environments compatible with their genotype (e.g., music-inclined teenagers forming a band).
Behavioral Genetics
- Studies the relative influence of heredity and environment on behavior, aiming to understand individual differences in traits.
- Heritability: a statistical estimate of heredity's contribution to individual differences in a specific trait within a population, ranging from 0.0 to 1.0.
Methods of Study
- Family Studies: examines correlation of traits within families to infer hereditary influence (e.g., obesity in families).
- Adoption Studies: separates environmental from genetic influence by investigating similarities between adopted children and their biological/adoptive parents.
- Twin Studies: compares behavioral similarity of identical and fraternal twins.
Interplay of Genetics and Environment
- Reaction Range: the potential expression of a hereditary trait, influenced by environmental opportunities and constraints (e.g., body size, height).
- Canalization: certain behaviors develop along genetically predetermined channels, but can be altered by extreme environmental changes (e.g., early walking, communication skills).
- Genotype-Environment Interaction: similar environmental conditions affect genetically different individuals differently (e.g., allergic reactions to pollen, antisocial personality development).
- Genotype-Environment Correlation: genetic and environmental influences align in the same direction.
3 Ways of Correlation
- Passive Correlations: environment created by biological parents with the same trait (e.g., music-loving parents create a music-rich environment).
- Reactive/Evocative Correlations: environment created by parents in response to early signs of dispositions (e.g., enrolling a music-inclined child in music academy).
- Active Correlation: individuals seek environments compatible with their genotype (e.g., music-inclined teenagers forming a band).
This quiz covers the basics of human development, including its goals and domains. It explores the study of human behavior and development across the lifespan.
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