Podcast
Questions and Answers
What is a necessary condition for a gene to be cancer-inducing?
What is a necessary condition for a gene to be cancer-inducing?
- The gene must be an oncogene
- Both copies of the gene must be affected (correct)
- The gene must be a tumor suppressor gene
- One copy of the gene must be affected
What is the primary function of the immune system?
What is the primary function of the immune system?
- To produce antibodies and cytokines
- To surveil the human body to destroy viruses and foreign cell types (correct)
- To destroy tumor cells
- To inhibit T cells
Which cells of the immune system engulf and destroy foreign particles?
Which cells of the immune system engulf and destroy foreign particles?
- T lymphocytes and natural killer cells
- B cells and macrophages
- Macrophages and natural killer cells (correct)
- T lymphocytes and B cells
What is the reason why normal human cells have a finite ability to undergo mitosis?
What is the reason why normal human cells have a finite ability to undergo mitosis?
What enables cancer cells to exceed Hayflick's limit and continue to undergo mitosis?
What enables cancer cells to exceed Hayflick's limit and continue to undergo mitosis?
What is the role of PDL-1 and PDL-2 antigens in cancer cells?
What is the role of PDL-1 and PDL-2 antigens in cancer cells?
What is the definition of metastasis?
What is the definition of metastasis?
What is the function of the tumor suppressor gene p53?
What is the function of the tumor suppressor gene p53?
What is the term for the state of being able to metastasize?
What is the term for the state of being able to metastasize?
How do normal cells respond to abundant DNA damage and other cellular stresses?
How do normal cells respond to abundant DNA damage and other cellular stresses?
What is a hallmark of cancer cells?
What is a hallmark of cancer cells?
What is the characteristic of benign tumors?
What is the characteristic of benign tumors?
How do cancer cells divert metabolites?
How do cancer cells divert metabolites?
What is the most common secondary site for cancer metastasis?
What is the most common secondary site for cancer metastasis?
What is the primary tumor growth characterized by?
What is the primary tumor growth characterized by?
What is the difference between normal cells and cancer cells in terms of glucose breakdown?
What is the difference between normal cells and cancer cells in terms of glucose breakdown?
What is the primary cause of cancer in the human body?
What is the primary cause of cancer in the human body?
What type of cancer arises from epithelial tissue in organs or glands?
What type of cancer arises from epithelial tissue in organs or glands?
What is the effect of an activating mutation on a gene?
What is the effect of an activating mutation on a gene?
What type of mutation is inherited from parents and present in germ cells?
What type of mutation is inherited from parents and present in germ cells?
What is the Two Hit Hypothesis in relation to genetic mutations?
What is the Two Hit Hypothesis in relation to genetic mutations?
What is the main difference between somatic and germline mutations?
What is the main difference between somatic and germline mutations?
What is the increased risk associated with inheriting a BRCA1/2 mutation?
What is the increased risk associated with inheriting a BRCA1/2 mutation?
What is the type of cancer that arises from connective tissue?
What is the type of cancer that arises from connective tissue?
What is the main premise of the scientific theory of evolution?
What is the main premise of the scientific theory of evolution?
What is the primary mechanism driving the process of evolution?
What is the primary mechanism driving the process of evolution?
Which of the following is a key principle of Darwinian evolution?
Which of the following is a key principle of Darwinian evolution?
What is the term for a trait that improves an organism's chance of survival and reproduction?
What is the term for a trait that improves an organism's chance of survival and reproduction?
What is the ultimate outcome of natural selection acting on a population over time?
What is the ultimate outcome of natural selection acting on a population over time?
What is the estimated percentage of species that have ever lived on Earth that have become extinct?
What is the estimated percentage of species that have ever lived on Earth that have become extinct?
Which of the following is a key aspect of gradualism?
Which of the following is a key aspect of gradualism?
What is the term for the process by which an organism's genes and their frequencies change over time?
What is the term for the process by which an organism's genes and their frequencies change over time?
What is the primary mechanism by which genetic changes occur in punctuated equilibrium?
What is the primary mechanism by which genetic changes occur in punctuated equilibrium?
What is the primary goal of artificial selection in genetic engineering?
What is the primary goal of artificial selection in genetic engineering?
What is the primary difference between inbreeding and hybridization in genetic engineering?
What is the primary difference between inbreeding and hybridization in genetic engineering?
What is the primary risk associated with inbreeding in genetic engineering?
What is the primary risk associated with inbreeding in genetic engineering?
What is the primary purpose of cloning in genetic engineering?
What is the primary purpose of cloning in genetic engineering?
What is the primary characteristic of punctuated equilibrium in terms of the fossil record?
What is the primary characteristic of punctuated equilibrium in terms of the fossil record?
What is the primary difference between genetic engineering and traditional breeding practices?
What is the primary difference between genetic engineering and traditional breeding practices?
What is the primary advantage of genetic engineering over traditional breeding practices?
What is the primary advantage of genetic engineering over traditional breeding practices?
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Study Notes
Cancer
- Cancer is caused by an uncontrolled division of abnormal cells in a part of the body.
- It is caused by an accumulation of detrimental variations in the genome over the course of a lifetime.
Types of Cancer
- There are four main types of cancer:
- Carcinoma: Arises in epithelial tissue that is found in the internal and external lining of the body.
- Sarcoma: Arises from connective tissue that is found in bones, tendons, cartilage, muscle, and fat.
- Leukemia: Cancers of the blood that originate in bone marrow.
- Lymphoma: Cancers of the lymph system.
Mutations
- Activating mutations: Cause the gene to be expressed at the wrong time, at the wrong level, or with a new function.
- Inactivating mutations: Cause reduced function of a gene (less RNA or protein is made).
Somatic and Germline Mutations
- Somatic mutations: Acquired by a somatic cell (all cells except eggs or sperm) that are passed on to daughter cells during cell proliferation.
- Germline mutations (inherited mutations): Present in a germ cell (egg or sperm) and are inherited by offspring.
Two Hit Hypothesis
- For a gene to be cancer-inducing, both copies of the gene must be affected.
- The second "hit" may alter the DNA (mutation) or alter the expression of the DNA (epigenetic).
Hallmarks of Cancer Cells
- Cancer cells can greatly exceed "Hayflick's limit" and continue to undergo mitosis.
- Cancer cells are able to do this because they can elongate their telomeres using an enzyme called telomerase.
Tumor Suppressor Genes
- A Tumor Suppressor Gene, p53, functions as a central regulator of cell death because it stops the cell cycle upon detection of DNA damage.
Cancer Cell Characteristics
- Cancer cells have the ability to proliferate due to the aforementioned Hallmarks 1--4 as well as to over-active oncogenes.
- Cancer cells have altered metabolism, and are able to divert metabolites for useful processes such as mitosis.
- Cancer cells can protect themselves by inhibiting T cells that would normally attack these cancer cells by having the PDL-1 (Programmed Death Ligand -1) or PDL-2 antigen which deflects the immune response.
Metastasis
- The process by which tumor cells move from the primary tumor to a different organ via lymph and/or blood.
- Cancer cells can metastasize to a secondary site, such as the lung and liver.
Evolution and Genetic Engineering
- Evolution: Change in populations over time.
- Important principles of Darwinian Evolution include variation, heritability, and reproductive advantage.
- Genetic Engineering: Changing the DNA in living organisms to create something. These organisms are called Genetically Modified Organism (GMO).
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